1)Stirrings of Imperialism

a)The New Manifest Destiny

i)American attention shifted to foreign lands b/c “closing of the frontier” 1890s led some to fear natural resources would dwindle and must be found abroad, growing importance of foreign trade and desire for new markets, fears that Eur imperialism would lead America to be left out of spoils

ii)Justifications provided by Social Darwinism- only fittest nations survive, therefore just for strong nations to dominate weaker ones

iii) Josiah Strong’s Our Country: Its Possible Future and Its Present Crisis (1885) states Anglo-Saxon “race” represented liberty, Christianity and should spread them; John Burgess wrote that duty of A-S to uplift less fortunate ppl

iv)Famous Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan wrote in The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890) that countries w/ sea power great nations of history- US needed to have foreign commerce, merchant marine, navy to defend routes, and colonies to provide raw materials and bases- claim Pacific Islands, HI

b)Hemispheric Hegemony

i)Sec of State James Blaine 1880s sought to expand US influence in Latin America to provide markets for surplus goods- 1889 organized Pan-American Congress. Pres Cleveland 1895 had dispute w/ GB over Venezuela border

c)Hawaii and Samoa

i)Hawaii appealing b/c Navy wanted Pearl Harbor as base, Americans who had settled on island had come to dominate political + economic life of islands

ii)Hawaii had been series of islands w/ self-sufficient communities. After 1810 American traders, missionaries, planters began settling there. Disease decimated Native populations; by 1840s Americans spread thru islands

iii)1887 US Navy negotiated to use Pearl Harbor as Navy base; by that time sugar exports to US basis of economy, American plantation system was displacing natives from their lands

iv)In response elevated nationalist Queen Liliuokalani 1891. 1890 US eliminated duty-free status of HI sugar, American planters felt only way to survive to join US- 1893 stages revolution. Pres Harrison signed annex agreement 1893 but delayed by Dem Senate and Dem Pres Cleveland until 1898 return of Repubs

v)Samoa had served as station for US chips in Pacific trade; Pres Hayes 1878 got treaty to use harbor at Pago Pago for Navy. Power share btwn US, GB, Germany over islands- 1899 US and Germany split islands, compensated GB

2)War with Spain

a)Controversy Over Cuba

i)Cubans had resisted Spanish rule of Cuba since 1868 for independence; in 1895 Cubans rose up violently again, Span under Gen Valeriano Weyler used harsh tactics + concentration camps in turn- US press skewered mainly Span

ii)Pulitzer’s NY World and Hearst’s NY Journal catered to broad, economically lower audience- used sensational “yellow journalism” + Cuban crisis to fight each other for circulation; Cuban Americans urged Cuba Libre as well

iii)Pres Cleveland proclaimed American neutrality; Pres McKinley took office 1897, protested Spanish conduct- withdrew Weyler

iv)Two events Feb 1898 ruined peaceful settlement: the leak of a letter from Spain’s minister to Washington touting McKinley as “bidder…of the crowd; and the destruction of the US battleship The Maine in Havana Harbor- Spain initially blamed, Congress mobilized for war- war declared in April

b)“A Splendid Little War”

i)Sec of State John Hay called Spanish-American War “a splendid little war” b/c only lasted April-August, few US battle deaths (but 5000+ from disease)

ii)War effort hampered by army supply problems, regular army w/o experience fighting large-scale war (used to Indian battles)- Nat’l Guard units used like in Civil War. Racial conflict w/ black army unites used in invasion

c)Seizing the Philippines

i)Sec of Navy Theodore Roosevelt strengthened Pacific Fleet, ordered Commodore George Dewey to attack Spanish forces in Philippines (Span colony) if war broke. May 1898 captured Manila Bay, later troops took city

ii)War to free Cuba had become war to strip Spain of its colonies w/o any decisions as to what to do with them after capture

d)The Battle for Cuba

i)American forces staged landing in June after Spanish fleet arrived in Santiago harbor. US battled Spanish forces in on way to Santiago at Las Guasimos and then later El Caney and San Juan Hill in July

ii)At Battle of Kettle Hill (part of Battle for San Juan Hill) unit called Rough Riders lead by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt (who had resigned as from Navy to fight in war) had famous charge

iii)US forces soon took Santiago, later US army landed + captured Puerto Rico

iv)Armistice w/ Spain in August ended war- recognized independence of Cuba, ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to US, accepted Manila (Philippines) occupation

e)Puerto Rico and the United States

i)Annexation of Puerto Rico produced little controversy- American military controlled island until 1900 Foraker Act created colonial got w/ American governor, 2-chamber legislature, and US could amend/veto any legislation

ii)Puerto Ricans (who had history of demanding independence from Spanish) clamored for independence- 1917 Congress passed Jones Act that made PR US territory + PRicans American citizens

iii)PR sugar economy flourished now w/o tariffs (as in HI); plantations formed, many PR farmers became paid laborers, dependent on int’l sugar prices

f)The Debate over the Philippines

i)Debate over Philippines difft b/c not in W. Hemisphere, densely populated and far away—McKinley reluctant but believed no other alternative (could not be retuned to Spain, given to other imperialist, and Filips “unfit for self govt”)

ii)War w/ Spain ended 1898 w/ Treaty of Paris, US paid $20 million for Philippines. Fierce resistance in US to ratification

iii)Anti-imperialists (under Anti-Imperialist League) opposed b/c imperialism immoral, industrial workers feared cheap labor

iv)Ratification supported by imperialists such as Theodore Roosevelt saw empire as means to reinvigorate nation, dominate Oriental trade, Repubs could come out of Repub war w/ new territory, and easy b/c US already occupied islands

v)Ratified in 1899 b/c anti-imperialist Dem Williams Jennings Bryan wanted to make is issue in 1900 election. Bryan ran against McKinley, referendum on war showed American ppl supported imperialism- McKinley won decisively

3)The Republic As Empire

a)Governing the Colonies

i)American dependents Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico got territory status (residents became US citizens)

ii)US military remained in Cuba. After Cuban constitution failed to mention US, Congress passed 1901 Platt Amendment that would bar Cuba from making treaties, gave US right to intervene in Cuba (little political independence given). American capital bought up much of Cuban economy and dominated it

b)The Philippine War

i)US subjugation of natives led to long, bloody war w/ insurgent independence fighters. US used same brutal tactics that it had opposed Spain using in Cuba

ii)Rebellion led by Emilio Aguinaldo w/ large popular following. By 1902 brutal and savage US tactics had changed American public opinion on war, but by then war already over (Aguinaldo captured 1901)

iii)Power given to US administrator William Howard Taft who believed US mission to prepare Filipinos for independence, so gave broad local autonomy. Trade w/ US grew and islands came to almost depend on US markets

c)The Open Door Policy

i)Philippine occupation strengthened US interest in Asia and Chinese trade

ii)Eur nations were carving up China for themselves; McKinley wanted to protect US interest in China w/o war. Sec of State John Hay proposed 1898 “Open Door notes” to Eur nations allowing access to China but give no nation special advantages. Allowed free trade w/o colony, military involvement

iii)Boxer Rebellion arose against foreigners in China. Siege of foreign diplomatic corps resulted in McKinley and Hay participating in quelling rebellion

d)A Modern Military System

i)War w/ Spain showed weakness of US military system in training, supply, coordination. McKinley apptd Elihu Root as Sec of War to overhaul forces

ii)Root enlarged army, federal standards for Nat’l Guard, created officer training schools, created Joint Chiefs of Staff to advise Sec of War, supervise military establishment, plan possible wars—modern military system by turn of century