Chapter 14:

The Civil War

 

1)The Secession Crisis

a)The Withdrawal of the South

i)South Carolina voted Dec 1860 to secede, by time Lincoln came to office six more states (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, TX) seceded

ii)Seceded states formed Confederate States of America Feb1861. These states started seizing federal property but at first lacked power to seize the military instillations at Fort Sumter, SC and For Pickens, FL

b)The Failure of Compromise

i)Compromise proposed by Sen John Crittenden of KY proposed constitutional amdts w/ permanent slavery in slave states, fugitive slave returned. At heart was plan to reinstitute Missouri Compromise Line for western lands

ii)Repubs rejected compromise. Lincoln came to office, stated: Union older than Const therefore no state could leave it, supporting secession= insurrection

c)Fort Sumter

i)Forces in fort running out of supplies, Lincoln informed SC govt that supply ships were being sent. South feared looking weak, ordered General PGT Beauregard to capture fort. Bombarded April 12-12,1861. Fort surrendered

ii)After defeat of fort Lincoln began mobilizing for war, but 4 more slave states also seceded- VA, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina. Other 4 slave states remained in Union- MD, Delaware, KY, Missouri)

iii)Ppl in N&S had come to believe two distinct and incompatible civilizations had developed in US, both incapable of living together in peace

d)The Opposing Sides

i)North held all the important material advantages- N had more than double the population (manpower for army and work force) advanced industrial system to manufacture war material (S had to rely on Eur imports), N had better transportation systems + more railroads

ii)Advantages tempered b/c at first South fighting defensive war on own land w/ strong support of population. N more divided and support shaky throughout

2)The Mobilization of the North

a)Economic Measures

i)W/o Southern forces in Congress it enacted nationalistic program to promote econ development- Homestead Act of 1862 gave public land to settlers for small fee, Morrill Land Grant Act gave land to state govts to sell for $ for public education. High tariffs passed- boom to domestic industries, protect from foreign producers

ii)To build transcontinental RR created the Union Pacific RR Company to build westward from Omaha + Central Pacific to build east from CA

iii) National Bank Acts of 1863-1864 created new bank system- banks could join if they invested in govt, in turn could issue US Treasure notes as currency

iv)Govt financed war thru taxes, paper currency, and borrowing. 1861 first ever income tax levied, govt “greenbacks” (paper money) issued (not on gold or silver standard), but mostly thru bonds sold to individuals and larger financial bodies

b)Raising Union Armies

i)To increase army Congress authorized enlisting 500,000 volunteers- produced adequate forces only briefly. By March 1863 govt had to pass national draft law (but ppl could avoid service by hiring someone in his place or paying $)

ii)Ppl were accustomed to remote, inactive nat’l govt so conscription had widespread opposition- mainly from laborers, immigrants, “Peace Democrats”

c)Wartime Politics

i)Lincoln moved to assert his authority- apptd cabinet representing every faction of Repub party, used war powers of president and disregarded parts of Const- e.x. never asking Congress for declaration of war (believed declaration would recognize Confederacy as an independent nation)

ii)Lincoln’s greatest problem was popular opposition to war mobilized by parts of Democratic Party (“Copperheads”) who feared agriculture and Northwest losign influence + deterioration of states rights by strong nat’l govt

iii)Lincoln suppressed opposition by ordering military arrests of civilian dissenters, suspending habeas corpus, stating all ppl who discouraged enlistment or disloyal practices subject to martial law. Lincoln defied Supreme Court when ordered to release secession leader (Ex parte Merryman), military courts declared unconst after war (Ex parte Milligan)

iv)In1864 presidential election coalition formed btwn Repubs & War Democrats in Union Party- nominated Lincoln. Dems nominated Gen George McClellan, platform for truce. N victories (e.x. Sept capture of Atlanta) led to Lincoln win

d)The Politics of Emancipation

i)Republicans disagreed on slavery- Radicals incl. Sen Charles Sumner wanted to use war to abolish slavery, Conservatives= gradual, less destructive process

ii)Lincoln cautious of emancipation but momentum gathered behind it- 1861 Confiscation Act freed all slaves used for “insurrectionary” purposes, second Confiscation Act in 1862 freed all slaves of ppl supporting the insurrection

iii)North began to accept emancipation as central war aim b/c nothing less would justify sacrifices of struggle, Radical Repub influence on the rise

iv)Lincoln seized leadership of antislavery sentiment- Sept 1862 after success at Battle of Antietam issued Emancipation Proclamation freeing slaves in all Confederate areas (but not Union slave states). Established war not only to maintain Union but also to eliminate slavery

v)1865 Congress ratified 13th Amendment abolishing slavery in all parts of US

e)African Americans and the Union Cause

i)About 180,000 emancipated blacks and more free blacks from North served as soldiers and laborers for Union forces. At start of war African Americans excluded from war, but after Emancipation Proc joined in great numbers

f)The War and Economic Development

i)War slowed some growth by cutting manufactueres off from Southern markets and raw materials and diverting labor, but mostly the war sped economic development in the North

ii)Econ growth from Repub nationalistic legislation + new sectors of economy. Difficult for workers though purchasing power declined, mechanization

g)Women, Nursing, and the War

i)Women entered new roles b/c of need for money and labor needs to fill positions vacated by men

ii)Nursing (previously dominated by men) taken up by women, staffed field hospitals thru US Sanitary Commission. Countered resistance from doctors by associating care with women’s role as maternal + nurturing wife and mother

iii)Many found war liberating, seen as opportunity to win support for own goals. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded National Woman’s Loyal League in 1863- worked for abolition and suffrage to women

3)The Mobilization of the South

a)The Confederate Government

i)Confederate const similar to US Const but acknowledged sovereignty of individual states, sanctioned slavery and made abolition nearly impossible. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi named president, led like Union by moderates of new Western aristocracy as opposed to entrenched Eastern elements

b)Money and Manpower

i)To finance war South needed to create national revenue system in society not used to tax burdens. Small banking system, little liquid capital b/c of investments in land + slaves. Govt requested funds from state govts who issued questionable bonds

ii)1863 Income tax created but raised little revenue, borrowing from Eur and bonds to citizens unsuccessful. Turned to issuing paper money but created inflation of over 9,000% vs North’s 80%, no uniform currency

iii)To raise military called for volunteers, but decline in enlistment led to April 1862 Conscription Act. N capture of Confederate lands led to loss of source for manpower, 1864 shortage so desperate draft widened but still ineffective

c)States’ Rights versus Centralization

i)States’ rights supporters obstructed war effort by limiting Davis’ ability to declare martial law and obstructed conscription

ii)Confed did centralize power in S- bureaucracy larger than that of Washington, impressed slaves to work for military, regulated industry + profits

d)Economic and Social Effects of the War

i)War devastating on S economy- cut off planters from markets in S, overseas cotton sales more difficult, industries w/o large slave forces suffered. Production declined by 1/3, fighting on S land destroyed RRs, farmland

ii)N naval blockade led to shortages of everything- agriculture had focused on cotton and not enough food to meet needs, few doctors b/c of conscription

iii)Like in N, w/ men leaving farms to fight the role of women changed- led slaves and family, became nurses. Led women to question S assumption that females unsuited for certain activities and to be in public sphere. War created gender imbalance w/ many more women, unmarried + widowed sought work

iv)Whites feared slave revolts + enforced slave codes severely, but many slaves tried to escape or resisted authority of women and boys overseeing plantations

4)Strategy and Diplomacy

a)The Commanders

i)Most impt Union commander was commander-in-chief Abraham Lincoln- realized N material advantages, goal defeat of Confed armies,  not occupation

ii)Lincoln had trouble finding a competent chief of staff for war- Gen Winifield Scott, Gen George McCllellan, Gen Henry Halleck. Finally found commander in Gen Ulysses S. Grant- goal to target enemy army + resources, not territory

iii)Lincoln and Grant scrutinized by Congress’ Committee on the Conduct of the War chaired by OH Sen Benjamin Wade - complained of lack of ruthlessness by of N generals

iv)Southern command centered on Pres Davis, 1862 named Gen Robert E. Lee principal military adviser (w/ Lee in field Davis controlled strategy). 1864 Gen Braxton Bragg named military adviser, later 1865 Confed Congress created position of general in chief, Davis named Lee, but Davis still decider

v)Most commanders from both N & S had attended one of the US service academies- US Military Academy at West Point, US Naval Acad at Annapolis

b)The Role of Sea Power

i)Union had overwhelming naval advantage- used to enforce blockade of S coast, assisted Union army in field operations especially on large rivers

ii)Blockade prevented most ships out of Confed ports. Confederates tried to break blockade w/ new weapons such as the ironclad warship the Merrimac, which the Union stopped with one of their ironclads the Monitor

c)Europe and the Disunited States

i)Judith P Benjamin was Confed secretary of state, counterpart in Washington was the great William Seward

ii)At start of war ruling classes of England + France sympathetic to Confed b/c imported cotton for textile industries from S, wanted to see a weaker US, admired aristocratic social order of S. France waited to take sides until England did, English didn’t act b/c of popular support of ppl for the Union

iii)S countered w/ “King Cotton diplomacy” arguing S cotton vital for these nations textile industries. Surpluses in these nations allowed S to be ignored, later imports from mills from Egypt and India

iv)No Eur nation diplomatically recognized Confed, no nation wanted to antagonize US unless Confed seemed likely to win- never reached that point

v)Still, there was tension btwn US and GB + France b/c these nations had declared neutrality. Also 1861 Trent affair over arrest of Confed diplomats aboard English steamer from Cuba, later crisis over sale of Brit ships to S

d)The American West and the War

i)Most states and territories of West remained loyal to Union except TX, although Southerners and S sympathizers active in organizing opposition

ii)Fighting occurred btwn Unionists and secessionists in Kansas and Missouri. Confed William Quantrill led guerilla fighters, Union Jayhawkers in KS

iii)Confed tried to ally w/ Five Civilized Tribes in Indian territory to recruit support against Union, Indians divided. Never formally allied w/ either side

5)The Course of Battle

a)The Technology of Battle

i)Battlefield of Civil War reflected changes in tech that transformed combat

ii)Both sides began to use repeating weapons- Samuel Colt’s 1835 repeating revolver, Oliver Winchester’s 1660 rifle. Also, improved artillery + cannon

iii)Changes in weapons effectiveness led soldiers to change from infantry lines firing volleys to use of no fighting formations but use of cover, fortifications, trenches. Observation balloons, ironclad ships also appeared during war

iv)Railroad impt in war where millions of soldiers mobilized + tons of supplies. Allowed large armies to assemble and move, but forced to protect stationary lines. Telegraph limited but allowed commanders to communicate during fight

b)The Opening Clashes, 1861

i)First major battle of war occurred in northern VA btwn Union Gen Irvin McDowell and Confed Gen PGT Beauregard at First Battle of Bull Run

ii)Union lost, forced to retreat to Washington, dispelled illusion of quick war

iii)1863 Union army under Gen George McClellan “liberated” anti-secessionists in western VA, area admitted to Union as West Virginia 1863

c)The Western Theater

i)Stalemate in East led to 1862 military operations in West. April 1862 Union forced surrender of New Orleans, closed Mississippi R to Confed trade and took away South’s largest city and most impt banking center

ii)Gen Ulysses S. Grant captured forts under command of Confed Gen Albert Johnston. In doing so Grant forced Confed out of Kentucky and Tennessee

iii)Grant then marched south, fought forced of Gen Sidney and Gen Beauregard at Battle of Shiloh April 1862. Narrow Union victory allowed capture of several impt railroad lines vital to the Confederacy

d)The Virginia Front, 1862

i)Union operations 1862 directed by Gen McClellan (commander of the Army of the Potomac), he was controversial b/c often reluctant to put troops in battle

ii)McClellan planned Peninsular Campaign- use navy to transport troops, attack Confed capital at Richmond from behind. Gen McDowell left to defend D.C.

iii)Then Confed Gen Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson looked as if planning to cross Potomac to Washington, defeated Union forces in Valley campaign, withdrew

iv)Meanwhile, McClellan battled and defeated Confed Gen Joseph Johnston at Battle of Fair Oaks. Johnston replaced by Gen Robert E. Lee who battled McClellan at Battle of the Seven Days. Union able to advance near Richmond

v)When McClellan delayed attack Lincoln ordered him to move to northern VA to forces under Gen John Pope. But as Army of Potomac moved Lee attacked Pope with his Army of Northern Virginia at 2nd Battle of Bull Run (August)

vi)Lincoln replaced Pope and McClellan led all forces. Lee planned offensive, resulted in Battle of Antietam Creek- bloodiest single-day of war w/ 6,000 dead & 17,000 injured. Confed withdrew but McClellan could have defeated Lee w/ last assault. Lincoln relieved McClellan from command in November, his replacement Gen Ambrose Burnside relieved in December after failures

e)1863: Year of Decision

i)New commander of Army of the Potomac Gen Joseph Hooker attacked by Lee + Jackson at Battle of Chancellorsville, barely able to escape w/ army

ii)While Union frustrated in East won impt victories in the West

iii)In July besieged Confed stronghold at Vicksburg, MI surrendered to Grant

iv)Union now controlled entire Mississippi R, Confederacy split in two- Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas cut off from other seceded states

v)To divert Union forces away from Missippi and Vicksburg and to gain major victory on N soil to get English and French aid, Lee proposed PA invasion

vi)New Army of the Potomac commander Gen George Meade battled Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg July 1-3. Meade defeated Lee w/ surrender on July 4, same day as Vicksburg defeat

vii) Weakened Confed forced now unable to seriously threaten N territory

viii)In September Gen Braxton Braggfought Union army under William Rosecrans, Union defeated at Battle of Chickamauga

ix)Bragg then fought remaining Union forces at Battle of Chattanooga (Tennessee) in November. Grant reinforced the Union army, Union won and occupied most of eastern TN and controlled important Tennessee River

x)Confed could not only hope to win independence thru holding on and exhausting N will to fight, not thru decisive military victory

f)The Last Stage, 1864-1865

i)Beginning 1864 Grant named general-in-chief of all Union armies. Planned two offensives: use Army of Potomac in VA to fight Lee near Richmond, and use western army under Gen William Sherman to advance toward Atlanta

ii)Grant’s Overland campaign in VA led Lee to win three battles (Battle of the Wilderness, Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse, Battle of Cold Harbor)

iii)Grant then decided to bypass Richmond to railroad center at Petersburg- strong defenses and reinforcement by Lee led to 9-month siege

iv)In Georgia Gen Sherman fought Gen Johnston and his replacement Gen Hood, took Atlanta in Sept- electrified N + united Repub Party behind Lincoln

v)Sherman defeated Confed at Battle of Nashville, while beginning his March to the Sea- sought to deprive Confed army of war materials and railroad but also break will of Southern ppl by burning towns and plantations along route

vi)Sherman captured Savannah, GA in Dec, turned north thru SC and NC

vii)April 1865 Grant’s Army of the Potomac captured vital railroad juncture in Petersburg. W/o rail access to South and cut off rom other Confed forces Lee no longer able to defend Richmond

viii)Lee attempted to move army around Union in hope of meeting forces with Gen Johnston in North Carolina, but Union blocked and pursued him

ix) Realizng more bloodshed was futile Lee met w/ Grant in town of Appomattox Courthouse, VA- surrendered there on April 9

x)Nine days later Gen Johnston surrendered to Sherman in North Carolina

xi)In military war was effectively over even though Jefferson Davis refused to accept defeat. He fled Richmond but was captured in Georgia