1)The Peace Settlement

a)The European Balance of Power

i)Many felt longing for a lasting peace, Congress of Vienna called

ii)Allies granted France large borders, restored Bourbon dynasty, no reparations- did not show injustice and revenge to the defeated country

iii)Quadruple Alliance and smaller states wanted barriers against French aggression

(1)Belgium + Holland joined Dutch crown, Prussia gained land – defensive measures

iv)Klemens von Metternich (Austria), Robert Castlereagh (GB), Charles Talleyrand (France) wanted balance of power, international equilibrium of political and military forces to discourage aggression

v)Great Powers wanted land to compensate for victory, Polish and Russian compensation more difficult

(1)Tsar Alexander I of Russia demanded Poland, Prussia demanded Saxony

(2)If granted would create imbalance in central Eur, Castlereagh and Metternich signed deal with Talleyrand against Prussia and Russia

(3)Compromised, France regained Great Power status, ended isolation

vi)Even after Napoleon escaped Elba, peace agreement remained mainly intact except for small losses

vii)Quad Alliance agreed to continue to meet in “congress” system

b)Intervention and Repression

i)Holy Alliance formed by Austria, Prussia, and Russia under Metternich, sought to repress liberal and revolutionary movements across Europe

ii)After liberal revolution in Spain, Metternich called meeting t establish active intervention to maintain all autocratic regimes whenever threatened

iii)Metternich’s policies relatively successful, thru Carlsbad Decrees 1819 required members of German confederation to root out subversive ideas and punish liberal and radical organizations

c)Metternich and Conservatism

i) Prince Klemens von Metternich was an internationally oriented aristocrat who sought staunch defense of the status quo

ii)Remained loyal to his class and defended nobility’s rights and privileges, proper state rested on monarchy, bureaucracy, aristocracy, some commoners

iii)Believed liberalism responsible for generation of war, blamed middle class for stirring revolt with lower classes

(1)Especially dangerous b/c liberalism associated with nationalism, individual peoples- sought to destroy Austria and central Eur

(2)Habsburg Austria made up of Germans, Magyars, Czechs, smaller groups- made Austria strong b/c of large population, weak b/c potential for dissatisfied minorities

(3)Metternich had to oppose liberalism b/c Austria unable to accommodate ideologies of dual revolution

2)Radical Ideas and Early Socialism

a)New ideas rejected the old, deeply felt conservatism, with its stress on tradition, a hereditary monarchy, a strong privileged landowning aristocracy, and an official church. Offered alternative ideologies

b)Liberalism

i)Basic principles liberty and equality, demanded representative govt, equality before the law as opposed to legal classes

ii)Individual freedoms: assembly, press, speech, from arbitrary arrest

iii)Liberalism faced more radical ideologies in 19th century, criticized for laissez faire- unrestricted private enterprise w/ no govt interference in economy

iv)Father of classic liberalism Adam Smith as outlined in Wealth of Nations (1776), self-regulating market would give all citizens a fair and equal opportunity

(1) Adopted in early 19th century Britain during IR, used to outlaw unions

v)At first associated with aristocratic landowners and substantial businessman b/c franchise only granted to property owners. Workers, peasants, and lower middle class did not own property an thus could not vote

vi)After 1815 more closely identified with middle class, some intellectuals became radical, democratic republicans calling for universal male suffrage and democracy

c)Nationalism

i)Nationalism said that each people had its own genius and cultural identity- including common language, history, and territory

(1)Early 19th century variety of ethnic groups shared territory of most states, many languages spoken- hard to unite

ii)Eur nationalists sought to turn perceived cultural unity into political unity

(1)Sought to make territory of each ppl coincide with defined boundaries of an independent nation-state

(2)Nationalist vision often poorly fitting with existing conditions and promised upheaval, yet successful in long run

iii)Reasons for rise and success of nationalism

(1)Development of complex industrial and urban society required better communication between individuals and groups

(a)Promoted use of standardized national language

(2)Nation-states emerged as “imagined communities” seeking to unite strangers together around an all-embracing natural identity

(a)Emotionally charged symbols and ceremonies, patriotic parades

iv)Most nationalists were liberal or democratic republicans b/c benefits of self-govt would be possible only if ppl united by common traditions that transcended local interests and class differences

(1)Believed every nation had right to exist in freedom and develop own character and spirit, liberty of individual and love of a free nation overlapped in early 19th century

v)Early nationalists also stressed differences btwn ppl, sense of national mission and national superiority emerged, might lead to aggression

d)French Utopian Socialism

i)Saw rise of laissez faire and industry as disturbing change to society creating selfish individualism and community fragmentation

ii)Key ideas

(1)Economic planning (not depend on destructive competition to do so)

(2)Helping poor, make rich and poor more economically equal,

(3)Private property should be regulated or abolished by state/community ownership

iii)Count Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)- key to progress social organization

(1)Parasites (court, aristocracy, churchmen) give in to doers (scientists, engineers, industrialists) who would plan and guide economy thru public works, investment banks, and improving conditions of poor

iv)Charles Fourier (1772-1837)- self-sufficient communities, emancipation of women and abolishment of marriage. Some found socialist program for liberation of women and workers doubly dangerous and revolutionaries

v)Louis Blanc- Organization of Work (1839)- urged workers to demand universal voting rights and take control of state peacefully, state should guarantee right to work and employment

vi)Pierre Joseph Proudhon- What is Property? (1840)- property was profit stolen from worker, who was the source of all wealth. Feared power of state

vii)French utopian socialists interacted with experiences of French urban workers who favored collective action and govt interaction in economic life

(1)Opposed to laissez faire laws that denied workers right to organize and promote competition, wanted to maintain control of trade and conditions

(2)Aspirations of workers and utopian theorists reinforced each other

(3)Genuine socialist movement emerged in Paris 1830s

e)The Birth of Marxian Socialism

i)Karl Marx (1818) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) published The Communist Manifesto (1848), became bible of socialism

ii)Supported emancipation of women and abolition of family, also believed one class had always exploited the other and that society was split btwn the middle class (bourgeoisie) and the modern working class (proletariat)

iii)Marx predicted the proletariat would conquer the bourgeoisie in a violent revolution b/c while a tiny minority who owned the means of production became richer the ever-poorer proletariat was growing in size and class-consciousness

(1)Profits were wages stolen from workers, incorporated Engel’s charges of terrible oppression of factory workers in England

iv)George Hegel (1770-1831)- each age characterized by dominant set of ideas, which produces opposing ideas and eventually a new synthesis

(1)Dialectic in which rise of industrial capitalism would result ultimately give way to socialism of revolutionary workers

3)The Romantic Movement

a)Radical concepts of politics and society accompanied by comparable changes in literature and art. Revolt against classicism that went hand in glove with Enlightenment’s belief in rationality, order, and restraint

b)Romanticism’s Tenets

i)Romanticism characterized by belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained imagination, spontaneity in art and personal life

ii)In Germany early Romantics in 1770s and 1780s called Sturm and Drang

iii)Development of one’s unique human potential supreme purpose of life, driven by sense of unlimited universe, yearning for unattained, unknown, unknowable

iv)Enchanted by nature, saw industry as attack on nature and human personality

c)Literature

i)Britain 1st country where romanticism spread to lit. , Home of most prominent writers in Europe- Wordsworth, Coleridge, Scott, Byron, Shelley, Keats

ii)Wordsworth and Coleridge 1798 Lyrical Ballads- ordinary speech, not flowery

iii)Walter Scott inspired by German Wolfgang van Goethe

iv)French romanticism stifled by Napoleon, Germaine de Stael On Germany 1810 urged French to throw out classical models

(1)Victor Huge most famous French romantic, Hunchback of Notre Dame 1831. George Sand also relatively famous

v)In E. and Cent. Eur literary romanticism and early nationalism often reinforced each other. Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm famous Germans, Aleksander Pushkin famous Russian

d)Art and Music

i)Most famous painter Eugene Delacroix Liberty Leading the People. Turner, Constable, famous Englishmen

ii)Chopin, Beethoven famous composers, Franz List famous pianist

4)Reforms and Revolutions

a)National Liberation in Greece

i)Greece dominated by Ottoman Turks since 15th century, 1821 national feeling erupted in revolt led by Alexander Ypsilanti (Greek patriot in Russian army)

ii)Great Powers, particularly Metternich, opposed to revolution, refused to back rebellion and supported Ottomans

iii)1827 France, GB, Russia responded to demands at home and supported Greeks, 1830 declared independent, German king placed on throne 1832

b)Liberal Reform in Great Britain

i)18th century British society dominated by landowning aristocracy, which was neither closed nor rigid. French Rev. scared aristocracy

ii)Tory Party, controlled by landed aristocracy, fearful of radical movements

(1)1815 Revision of Corn Laws- prohibited the importation of foreign grain unless the price at home rose to improbably levels. Cheap grain imports from Eur no longer allowed, only rich aristocracy benefited

(2)Coming at time of unemployment and postwar economic distress, demonstrations held and then banned by Tory gov’t in 1817

(3)Gov’t passed Six Acts, controls on press and eliminated mass gatherings, resulted in enormous protest at Saint Peter’s Field in Manchester, nicknamed Peterloo

iii)New Manufacturing and commercial groups insisted on a place for their new wealth alongside the landed wealth of the aristocracy in power and prestige

(1)Supported liberal reforms: wanted reform of town govt, more rights for Catholics and dissenters, reform Poor laws

iv)Whig Party responsive to commercial and manufacturing interests, passed Reform Bill of 1832

(1)House of Commons most impt legislative body, new industrial areas given representation in Commons, “rotten boroughs” eliminated

(2)Number of voters doubled to 12%, radical reform made w/o revolution

v)Radical program embodied in “People’s Charter” of 1838

(1)Inspired by economic distress of working class in 1830s and 1840s, sought universal male suffrage

(2)Many working-class ppl joined with middle-class manufacturers in the Anti-Corn Law League, pass participation made possible a crusade by liberals fighting for lower food prices and jobs

vi)1845 after Ireland’s famine English feared famine, Tory PM Robert Peel joined to allow free grain imports, free trade became dogma in GB

vii)Tories passed Ten Hours Act of 1847- limited workday for women and young ppl in factories to 10 hours, competed with middle class for support of working class

c)Ireland and the Great Famine

i)Most ppl were Irish Catholics who rented land from minority of Church of England Protestants who were power hungry, most Irish lived in terrible conditions and were extremely poor

ii)Tremendous population increases due to cultivation of the potato (sustained more ppl on less land), early marriage, and exploitation by landlords

iii)From 1820 on deficiencies and disease in potato crop, in 1845, 1846, 1848, and 1851 potato crop failed in Ireland

iv)Great Famine- widespread starvation and mass epidemics followed, British govt committed to laissez-faire and reacted slowly and inadequately- taxes still collected, landlords still demanded rents

(1)Led to great migration, population decline, anti-British feeling, Irish nationalism

d)The Revolution of 1830 in France

i)Louis XVIIIs Constitutional Charter of 1814 was a liberal constitution that protected economic + social gains made by middle class in peasants during FR

(1)Created parliament with upper and lower houses- but was not democratic because only wealthiest males had the right to vote for deputies

ii)Charles X reactionary and wanted to re-establish old order, blocked by deputies repudiated Constitutional Charter in coup in July 1830

(1)Stripped wealthy middle class of voting rights, censored press—Paris erupted in revolution and Charles fled

iii)Charles’ cousin Louis Philippe seated on throne, accepted Constitutional Charter, wealthy notable elite actually tightened its control at expense of old aristocracy to protect narrowly liberal institutions of 1815- MC disappointed

5)The Revolutions of 1848

a)A Democratic Republic in France

i)1840s Eur economically affected by potato famine of 1845 and 1846 in Ireland, higher food prices, misery and unemployment in cities—outbreaks across Eur

ii)Louis Philippe characterized by inaction and complacency, lack of legislation, corruption, only rich voting for deputies—sense of injustice amongst middle class

iii)February 22, 1848 barricades set up in France, throne abdicated to grandson, but common ppl would have no more monarchy—established provisional republic

(1)First French Republic set to work drafting constitution for Second Republic

(2)Extended right to vote to every adult male, French slaves freed, abolition of death penalty, establishment of 10-hour work day

iv)Within revolutionaries big divide- moderate republicans viewed universal male suffrage as ultimate concession and wanted no further radical measures, radical republicans committed to some type of socialism

(1)Louis Blanc advocated for socialist system w/ workshops due to depression and rising unemployment, moderates granted only temporary relief

v)In April French elected new Constituent Assembly, mostly moderate republicans, Alexis de Tocqueville author of Democracy in America elected

vi)Socialist revolution of Paris evoking violent rxn from scared MC, upper class, and peasants- all owned land, hatred of radical Paris, opposed to socialists

vii)New govts executive committee dropped Blanc and thereafter included no rep from Parisian working class, workers and artisans in turn invaded the Constitutional Asembly in May, crushed by MC National Guard

viii)June 22 govt dissolved the growing and radical national workshops, violent uprising occurred in Paris by hungry masses who now lost their relief

(1)“June Days” resulted in General Louis Cacaignac’s success against the working class, had support of peasants and army

ix)Revolution ended in failure, Feb coalition of MC and working class ended in mortal combat, instead of dem. republic Constituent Assembly elected Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon, represented desire of propertied class for order at any cost in a semi-authoritarian regime

b)Austrian Empire in 1848

i)Across Eur liberals demanded written constitutions, rep govt, and civil liberties from authoritarian regimes. Urban workers and students served as revolutionary troops with MC and peasant allies, but traditional forces would reassert and took back most of concessions

ii)Revolution began in Hungary, nationalists demanded autonomy, suffrage, liberties- emperor Ferdinand I capitulated, Metternich fled

(1)Freed serfs lost interest in city agitations, in cities workers and artisans demanded socialist workshops + voting rights and MC recoiled in alarm

(2)March coalition weakened when Hungarians sought to form unified state but minority groups rose up in armed opposition, monarchy played groups against one another, especially those in Germany, Bohemia

iii)Coservative aristocratic forces gathered behind Ferdinand I and nephew Francis Joseph

(1)Breathru came when army crushed Prague revolt June 17, determination of aristocracy and loyalty of peasant army were ingredients for triumph

iv)Francis Joseph crowned December 1848, with help of Nicholas I of Russia crushed revolution movement in 1849

c)Prussia and the Frankfurt Assembly

i)Pre-1848 Middle class Russian liberals sought to create a constitutional monarchy and unite German Confederation into single, liberal unified state

ii)March Frederick William IV caved in to March riots in Berlin, but ppl wanted more than moderate liberal constitution and unified state, workers wanted socialist and democratic demands met that sacred MC

iii)MC National Assembly met to write liberal constitution for united confederation, war with Denmark ensued over battle for provinces with German nationalistic ties

iv)1849 draft completed, reaction followed when Frederick disbanded Prussian Constituent Assembly

v)When Frederick tried to get monarchs of Germany to elect him emperor, Austria supported by Russia forced Prussia to renounce schemes for reunification