1)Politics, Religion, and War

a)1559- Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis- France and Spain ended Habsburg Valois War, Spain victor

i)Govt used religious faiths to persuade people to acquiesce to heavier taxes

ii)Ordinary people motivated by religious differences to participate in wars

b)Armies different than previous wars

i)16th and 17th century: armies were bigger, large armies expensive, govt had to reorganize to finance armies, gunpowder + death from long range

ii)Propaganda + pulpits used to arouse public opinion about war

c)Catholics believed Calvinists and Lutherans could be reconverted, Protestants thought Roman Cath church should be destroyed most believed a state could survive only if there was one faith

d)Origins of Difficulties in France

i)France continued recovery from Louis CI, labor shortage ended serfdom benefited peasantry

ii)Francis I (1515-1547) and son Henry II (1547-1559) governed thru small, efficient council- nobles were governors, Paris appointed other officials

iii)1539- Francis ordered all of France under jurisdiction of royal court, French made official language, taille- land tax- gave power to monarch and supported army

iv)Hapsburg-Valois War cost more than govt could afford

(1)Increased taxes, heavy borrowing- to compensate sold public offices (short term, “nobility of the robe”- tax exempt), treaty with pope- Concordat of Bologna

(a)France recognized papacy over council, France gained right to appoint French bishops and abbots, essentially state religion

(2)Churchmen appointed as payment for helping state

(3)Lack of clergy willing to advance religion- gave Lutheranism and Calvinism audience, Calvin’s French writings drew converts form clergy, middle class

e)Religious Riots and Civil War in France (1539-1598)

i)Three weak sons of Henry II (Francis I, Charles IX, Henry III) could not provide necessary leadership

(1)From 1560-1589 Catherine wanted civil and religious peace- so long as her sons controlled govt

(2)2nd half of 16th century much of nobility became Calvinist- cloak for independence movement

ii)Clashes between Catholic royalists and Calvinist antimonarchal lords

(1)Upper levels= power

(2)Lower levels= religious concerns paramount, believed other religion polluted community, preachers incited violence

iii)Saint Bartholomew’s Day (August 24, 1572)- Paris- marriage of king’s sister Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre, to help reconcile Catholics and Huguenots

(1)Admiral Haspard de Coligny (who had replaced Catherine in influence over Charles XI)- head of Huguenots- was ordered to be attacked by Henry of Guise- leader of Catholic aristocracy

(2)Rioting followed, Huguenot gentry in Paris massacred

iv)War of Three Henrys

(1)Catholic Henry of Guise, Protestant Henry of Navarre, King Henry III

(2)15 years of religious rioting and anarchy

v)France saved by small group of moderates called politiques- only strong monarchy could stop collapse, favored recognizing Huguenots

(1)Death of Catherine de’ Medici, assassinations of Henry of Guise and King Henry III paved way 4 Henry of Navarre, politique who became Henry IV

vi)Henry IV (1589-1610)- “Paris is worth a mass”- received into Catholic church b/c most of France was Catholic, sacrificing religion saved France

(1)Edict of Nantes- 1598- granted Huguenots liberty of conscience and public worship in certain town

f)Netherlands Under Charles V

i)Last quarter of 16th century- political stability of England, prestige of Spain, moral influence of papacy mixed up in religious crisis of Low Countries- began as church reform developed into struggle for Dutch independence

ii)Emperor Charles V (1519-1556)- inherited Low countries, important sites of exchange of products

(1)Antwerp- intersection of trade routes, chief intermediary for international commerce and finance

(2)Vibrant atmosphere Erasmus

(3)Each province was self-governed, make own laws and taxes, no federation

(4)Corruption in Church + critical spirit of Ren.= pressure for reform

(5)Charles V responded condemnation and mild suppression, but was loyal to Flemish and they to him, therefore spread of Lutheranism checked

iii)1556- Charles V abdicated, divided kingdom between brother Ferdinand and son Philip

(1)Ferdinand=Austria, Holy Roman Empire

(2)Philip=Spain, Low Countries, Milan, Sicily, Span. New World

(3)Gave speech in Flemish, Philip spoke in Spanish, Netherlanders never forgot that he was Spanish

g)Revolt of the Netherlands (1566-1587)

i)By 1560’s there was strong, militant minority of Calvinist in cities of Neth.

ii)Neth. Had large middle class, Calvinism appealed b/c intellectual seriousness, moral gravity, emphasis on labor well done. Many converted because bosses would only hire Calvinists

iii)1559- Philip II appointed half sister Margaret as Regent of Neth.

(1)Ignatius Loyola had been confessor, pushed orders to wipe out Prot.

(2)Introduced Inquisition

(3)To finance govt appealed to States General (representative body, each of the 17 Neth. Provinces sent a representative), raised taxes, united opposition of fiscal policy with opposition to repression of Calvinism

(4)1566- high grain prices, lower class Calvinist rampage of destruction

(a)Notre Dam at Antwerp was first target- monument of commercial prosperity, piety of business class. Later other churches + libraries attacked, riots spread

iv)From Madrid Philip II sent 20,000 Spanish troops under duke of Alva to pacify Low countries

(a)Alva interpreted pacification to mean ruthless extermination of religious and political dissidents

(2)Council of Blood- March 3. 1568 1500 men executed, Margaret sickened and resigned regency. Alva resolved financial crisis by levying 10% sales tax on every transaction

(3)Between 1568-1578 civil war between Catholics and Protestants, 17 provinces and Spain

(4)1576 17 provinces united under Prince William of Orange

(5)1578 Philip II sent nephew Alexander Farnese to crush revolt once and for all, avoided pitched battles, fought by patient sieges

(a)Slowly cities of south conquered, finally Antwerp captured

(b)10 southern provinces, Spanish Netherlands (future Belgium) remained under control of Spanish Habsburgs

(c)7 Northern provinces, led by Holland, formed Union of Utrecht and in 1581 declared independence from Spain

(d)Geography and sociopolitical structures separated countries, N. provinces were flooded to halt Farnese advancement

(i)N.= commercial aristocracy had power, mostly Protestant

(ii)S.= landed nobility had power, remained Catholic

v)Philip II and Alexander Farnese didn’t accept geographical division, struggle continued after 1581

(1)United Provinces asked Protestant Queen of England Elizabeth for assistance—if supported Prot would antagonize England, if did not support them likely Spain would invade England

(2)Three things tipped her hand:

(a)War in Low countries- chief market for English woolens, hurt economy, crown lost export tax revenues

(b)Murder of William the Silent (of Orange) in July 1584 eliminated Prot. leader and check on Farnese advance

(c)Collapse of Antwerp appeared to signal Catholic sweep, feared Spanish invasion next

(3)Pumped 250,000 pounds and 2,000 troops between 1585-1587

h)Philip II and the Spanish Armada

i)Pondered developments at the Escorial- monastery served as a residence for monks, tomb for Habsburg ancestors, royal palace for Philip and family

(1)Surrounded by monks and bones of his ancestors

ii)Classical interpretation: religious bigot determined to reimpose Roman Catholicism on N. Europe

iii)More modern research: complicated, paradoxical figure, well traveled and knowledgeable about international relations

iv)After burying fourth wife, Anna of Austria, more devoted to religion

v)Toleration= growth of heresy, civil disorder, violence

vi)Even though vast wealth due to silver form the New World, Philip distracted by death of son, third wife, Ottoman Turk advance, revolt of Moriscos (Muslims) in Granada

vii)1586 Mary of Scots, heir to Elizabeth, implicated in plot to assassinate her, Philip fully backed her

(1)When news of Mary’s beheading reached Pope Sixtus V promised to pay Philip 1 million ducats to land Spanish troops in England

viii)Plan was to sail from Lisbon to Flanders, fight Elizabeth’s navy if it attacked, rendezvous with Farnese, escort his barges and troops across English Channel

(1)Spanish Armada Sailed on May 9, 1588- 130 ships met an English fleet of 150 smaller, more maneuverable ships which had greater firepower

(2)Spanish defeated b/c of English fleet, storms, spoiled food and water, inadequate ammunition

(3)Navy was later rebuilt, defeat had no effect on arrival of gold from New World, fighting with England continued for years

ix)Victory was decisive because it prevented Philip II from reimposing religious unity on western Europe by force

(1)Didn’t conquer England, which still supported Dutch (borders hadn’t changed since 1581)

x)1609 Philip III of Spain agreed to truce, in effect recognizing the United Provinces

i)Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

i)While Philip II dreamed of building a second armada and Henry IV began reconstruction of France, political situation of Europe deteriorated

ii)Peace of Augsburg (1555) in the Holy Roman Empire being violated when Lutherans began acquiring bishoprics. Calvinists not part of Peace, therefore they tried to convert princes, Jesuits had reconverted some Lutheran princes, Protestants feared weakening power

iii)Lutheran princes formed Protestant Union (1608) and Catholics retaliated with Catholic League (1609)

(1)Habsburgs supported Catholic league

iv)Violence began in 1617 when Ferdinand of Styria (new Cath. King of Bohemia) began closing Protestant churches

(1)Protestants responded, threw 2 officials out a windows “defenestration of Prague”

v)Bohemian Phase (1st phase)- 1618-1625

(1)Civil war in Bohemia between Catholic League (led by Ferdinand) and Prot. Union (led by Fredrick, elector of the Palatinate)

(2)Fredrick defeated by Cath. At the battle of the White Mountain

(3)Ferdinand II (when elected H.R. Emperor), wiped out Protestantism in Bohemia

vi)Danish Phase (1625-1629)

(1)King Christian IV of Denmark ineffective leader of Prot. cause

(2)Cath. Army led by Albert of Wallenstein scored victories, indispensable to Ferdinand, only wanted power for himself, fought with Cath. League, divided Catholic forces

vii)Edict of Restitution (1629)- Jesuits persuaded emperor to restore all Catholic properties lost to Prot. and allow only Catholics and Lutherans to practice faiths. Peak of Habsburg power

viii)Swedish Phase (1630-1635)

(1)Arrival in Germany of Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus who intervened to support oppressed Prot. in empire

(2)Cardinal Richelieu, chief minister of King Louis XIII of France, subsidized the Swedes to weaken Habsburg power in Europe

(3)Victories at Bretenfeld and Lutzen

(4)Participation of Swedes decisive to Prot., Baltic empire under Swedish influence

(5)Death of Gustavus in 1632 followed by defeat of Swedes at the battle of Nordlingen in 1634 prompted French to enter war on side of Prot.

ix)French / International Phase (1635-1648)

(1)For a century French foreign policy based on opposition to Habsburgs

(2)Cardinal Richelieu declared war on Spain and sent financial and military assistance to Swedes and German Prot. princes

(3)Scots, Finns German mercenaries all joined, no quick victory for either side because neither had resources to win quick victory

x)Peace of Westphalia (October 1648)

(1)Conflict over religious faiths ended, recognized independent authority of over 300 German princes. Habsburg power limited, No more sharing power with emperor, but HRE continued to function as a federation

(2)Independence of United Provinces of Netherlands acknowledged, France gained land, Sweden gained $ and land,

(3)Denied papacy right to participate in German religious affairs (reduced role of church in Eur. Politics)

(4)Allowed P. of Augsburg to stand, but Calvinism now legally permissible

j)Germany After Thirty Years’ War

i)Disaster for economy and society

ii)1/3 of urban and 2/5 of rural population died

iii)Late 16th/ early 17th centuries saw economic crisis b/c of influx of silver from South America, Germany hit hard b/c was battleground. Worst inflation in Eur

iv)Agriculture destroyed, price of labor increased, nobles bought up great estates b/c farmers could not afford to start over. New serfdom in some areas contributed to the legal and economic decline of largest segment of German society

2)Discovery, Reconnaissance, and Expansion

a)Overseas Exploration and Conquest

i)Viking exploration in the 9th and 10th centuries by Eric the Red and Leif Ericson, discovered Greenland

ii)Crusades were attempt to explore and exploit peoples on periphery of continent

iii)By 1450 threat of Ottoman Turks, who had excellent military and efficient administration of conquered lands, pressed Northwest under Sultan Mohammed II into Balkans, frightened Europeans

iv)Consolidation in Spain, France, England allowed for exploration

v)Ferdinand and Isabella more united Spain, monarchy was stronger and in a position to support foreign ventures: bear costs and dangers of exploration

vi)Portugal’s taking of Ceuta, Arab city in Morocco, 1415, marked beginning of exploration and control of overseas territory

(1)Wanted to Christianize Muslims, find gold, overseas trade routes

vii)Prince Henry the Navigator, established school for navigation

(1)Under King John II continued Henry’s expeditions to west Africa, established trading posts in Guinea, by controlled African gold and flow of gold to Europe—taken back to Lisbon

(2)Bartholomew Diaz rounded Cape of Good Hope, Vasco de Gama reached India and returned with Indian spices

(3)King Manuel sent Pedro Alvares Cabral to set up trading posts in India

(4)South American sighted, claimed for Portugal, Lisbon became entrance point for Asian goods into Europe

viii)Portuguese under Alfonso de Albuquerque (Governor of India) attacked Muslim forts to gain control of India and Indian Ocean, laid foundation for Portuguese imperialism

b)Technological Stimuli to Exploration

i)By 1530 the cannon had been fully developed in W. Europe. Employed on ships, improve shipbuilding gave impetus to European expansion

ii)Galleys- open boats powered my men, suitable for Mediterranean, caravel-small, light, 3-masted ship, used cannons as opposed to soldiers

iii)Magnetic compass- determine direction, astrolabe- determine latitude

c)The Explorers’ Motives

i)Expansion not motivated by demographics or large population

ii)Crusading fervor remained a basic part of the Portuguese and Spanish national ideal, spread Christianity to pagans and Muslims- too expensive to convert Muslims, focused on Africa and Americas

iii)Limited economic and political opportunities for young Spanish upper class

iv)Strong financial support from government- Henry the Navigator, Isabella and Ferdinand, Dutch East India Company, Netherlands

v)Manifestation of Renaissance curiosity about the physical universe

(1)Fernandez de Oviedo’s General History of the Indies (1547) told of plants, animals and peoples and was widely read

vi)Spices were very valuable, added flavor to diet of Europeans, medicinal drugs and religious ceremonies

(1)Marco Polo went to China, Travels (1298) stimulated spice trade btwn Asia and Italy

(2)Grown in India and China, across Indian Ocean, Arabs brought them to Mediterranean ports

(3)Ottoman invasion and Chinese expulsion of foreigners forced Europeans to seek new route to Asian markets

vii)Quest for material profit

(1)Bartolomew Diaz- “to serve God and His Majesty, to give light to those who were in darkness and to grow rich as all men desire to do”

(2)Hernando Cortez in Mexico, Ogier Gheslin de Busbecq “religion supplies the pretext and gold the motive”

d)The Problems of Christopher Columbus

i)Praised for carrying Christian civilization across the “Ocean Sea”

ii)Enslaved and killed Indians, did not discover the continents, misunderstood what he had found

iii)Opportunistic adventurer who loved the rappings of grand titles

iv)Originator of European exploitation of non-European world

v)Shared in religious and nationalistic fervor surrounding Spanish conquest of Granada and the conversion of Muslims, foremost goal was as a divine agent

vi)Porotlans- written descriptions of ships courses, bays, capes, ports

vii)Wanted to find a direct ocean route to Asia that would provide expanded trade

viii)Ignored evidence of his eyes when he arrived in Caribbean and described what he wanted to see- idyllic paradise

ix)Shifted goal from establishing trade with Indians and Chinese to kind of trade the Portuguese conducted with Africa- involved setting up gov’t

x)Laid foundation for Spanish imperial administration

3)Later Explorers

a)In 1493 Columbus’ letters describing discovery had been printed in Spain, as De Insulis Inventis in Rome, Paris, Basel, Antwerp, Venice

b)Amerigo Vespucci in letter Mundus Novus (The New World) was the first to describe America as a continent separate from Asia

c)Millions in Caribbean for conversation, forced labor in gold mines, diseases killed millions- Indian slaves from Bahamas and Africans imported to do the mining

d)1519 Charles V of Spain commissioned Ferdinand Magellan to find direct route to spices of the Molucus- sailed around Cape Horn, west across Pacific. First to circumnavigate the globe, proved world round +  larger than Columbus estimated

e)1519- b/c placer mining in W. Indies slow and shortage of labor, Hernando Cortes crossed into Mexico, conquered Aztecs and Montezuma, founded Mexico City as capital of New Spain

i)Between 1532 and 1550 N Mexico captured, Zacatecas and Guanajanto had rich silver deposits

f)Francisco Pizarro- 1531-1536 conquered Incan Empire in Peru, Potosi in Peruvian highlands became richest silver mine in New World

g)Antwerp, controlled by Span. Habsburgs, became hub for overseas bullion and Portuguese spices, center of European commerce and finance

h)By end of 16th century Amsterdam had overtaken Antwerp

i)Dutch had embarked on foreign exploration

ii)Dutch East India Company 1502= Dutch imperialism. By 1650 intruded Spanish possessions in America, gaining control of African and Amer. Trade

i)English and French explorations lacked sensational results of Span. And Port.

i)John Cabot 1497 New England Coast and Newfoundland, found no gold Henry VII lost interest in exploration

ii)Frenchman Jacques Cartier explored St. Lawrence region of Canada

j)Economic Effects of Spain’s Discoveries in the New World

i)16th century= Golden Century of Spain

ii)Mines at Zacatecas, Guanajuato, Potosi delivered huge quantities of precious metals, transported by armed convoys to Spain (Seville)

iii)Spain increase in population, rise in demand, prices, cost, Spanish goods could not compete on international market inflation

iv)No correlation between silver and inflation, maybe population, manly price revolution which strained government budgets

(1)Several times between 1557 and 1647 Philip II forced to repudiate state debt, undermined confidence in govt, Spanish economy in shambles and Spain’s predominance came to an end

v)Philip II paid armies and debt with silver, inflation spread to rest of Europe

k)Colonial Administration

i)Crown absolutism, had control over all imperial lands, four viceroyalties: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, La Plata

(1)Viceroy presided over audiencia- board of 12-15 judges who served as advisory council and highest judicial body

(2)Enlightened King Charles III introduced intenants- royal officials with military and financial power reported not to viceroy but to monarchy in S.

ii)Mercantilist principles- colonies existed for financial benefit of home country

(1)Crown claimed quinto- 1/5 of all metals mined in S.A.

iii)Portuguese governed similar manner, after union of Crowns of Port. and Spain in 1580,  Span. administrative forms introduced- corregidores held judicial and military powers. Brazil= mixture of Indians, whites, blacks

4)Changing Attitudes

a)Status of Women

i)New literature on Marriage emphasized qualities of each partner

(1)Husband work to prove for material welfare of family, rule house

(2)Wife mature, good household manager, subservient and faithful spouse

(3)Moralists believed household was woman’s first priority, suffering was punishment they had inherited from Eve

ii)Cath-Marriage was a union that could not be dissolved, Prot- contract, divorce allowed. Patriarchal society

iii)Elizabeth Hardwick acquired great wealth and land thru marriage

iv)Artists and poets talked of the flesh, reformers and pub officials sex sinful

(1)Prostitution legal, pope tried to expel prostitutes lost 2 much money, officials to prevent married men from entering brothels (for singles). Moralists against it. Women worked, wives in husband’s business

(2)Celibacy not preached, ex-nuns encouraged to marry

b)The Great European Witch Hunt

i)A witch was a person whom the devil wants to commit a certain act- Chief Justice Coke of England, educated as well as ignorant believed in witches

ii)Witches predated Christianity, reformers notion of Devil and insecurity created by religious wars contributed to growth of belief in witches

iii)Witch pact w/ devil for power=denounce God, considered heresy

iv)Germany 3,229 witches killed, Swiss Confed.= 5,417 killed, Eng.=1,000

v)Reasons for the great witch hunt

(1)Means of accounting for inexplicable misfortunes (military losses, illness)

(2)Accusations of witchcraft was way of attacking nonconformist in small, socially knit communities

(3)Psychological projection resulting from Christian repression of sexuality

c)European Slavery and the Origins of American Racism

i)Victors enslaved conquered peoples, shortage of workers from Black Death led to slavery in Italy during the Middle ages, Renaissance (threats from pope)

ii)1453 Ottoman capture of Constant. Halted flow of white slave from Black Sea region, new source of labor was Sub-Saharan Africa

iii)“The history of slavery became inextricably tied up with the history of sugar”

(1)Late 15th century greater demand for sugar, slaves sent to plantations in Madeira, Azores, Cape Verde Islands, S. Portugal

iv)Major problems of new world was a shortage of labor

(1)Spanish enslaved native Indians, English, Dutch, Port. Followed

(2)Native people not accustomed to harshness of Spanish exploitation

(3)Missionary Bartolome de las Casas urge emperor Charles V to end Indian slaver and import blacks from Africa, thought could survive under conditions

(4)Charles agreed, 1518 slave trade began (Casas regretted decision later)

v)African kings and dealers sold slaves to European Merchants

(1)Dutch East India Company in 1621 with support of Govt of United Provinces transported thousands of Africans to Caribbean and Brazil

(2)Royal African Company- English became involved

vi)Settlers brought to Americas racial attitudes of Europe

(1)Christian theological speculation + Arab ideas

(2)Barbaric b/c of customs- eating habits, morals, language, non-Christian

(3)Arabs emphasized physical repulsiveness, mental inferiority, primitism

(a)Only people who had produced no sciences or stable states

(4)Developed into classic Southern stereotypes, ideally suited 4 enslavement

5)Literature and Art

a)The Essay: Michel de Montaigne

i)Decades of fanaticism led both Catholics and Protestants to doubt that any one faith contained absolute truth

ii)Skepticism formed- school of thought founded on doubt

iii)First skeptic- Michel de Montaigne

(1)At age of 38 resigned judicial post, retired to his estate, devoted rest of his life to study, contemplation, understand himself- his wealth allowed him

(2)Object of life= “know thyself”, essay- French essayer=to test or try

(3)Possessed independence, willingness to look at all sides of question, rejected that one culture was superior to another, rejected dogmatism

b)Elizabethan and Jacobean Literature

i)Latter part of Elizabeth’s reign, first years of successor James I (1603-1625)- remarkable literary expression

(1)Poetry of Sir Philip Sydney such as Astrophel and Stella, Edmund Spenser The Faerie Queene, Christopher Marlowe paved way for William Shakespeare, Authorized Bible (King James Bible)- golden age Eng. Lit.

(2)Shakespeare born in Stratford-on-the-Avon, Julius Caesar, Pericles, show appreciation for classis literature. Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth- tragedies

(3)Authorized Bible- 1604- Puritans urged James I to support a new translation, published by group of scholars in 1611, royal sponsorship

c)Baroque Art and Music

i)Baroque- “odd shaped, imperfect pearl”- later critics as an expression for overblown, unbalanced style

ii)The papacy and Jesuits encouraged growth of emotional, exuberant art. Wanted artists to appeal to senses and touch soul, kindle faith of ordinary churchgoers, confidence of the reformed Catholic church- Jesuit Church of Jesus in Rome (the Gesu)

iii)Definite shape in Italy after 1600, developed in Catholic countries- Spain, Latin America, Austria, S. Germany, Poland

iv)Didn’t spread to England, Netherlands, Cath. France, but Prot. music role

v)Peter Paul Rubens- most outstanding of baroque painters, influenced by High Ren. Painters. Glorified monarchs, Christian themes, fleshy nudes

(1)High social status, work greatly in demand, Habsburg commissions

vi)Johann Sebastian Bach- Baroque music, Lutheran church music,