Chapter 14:

Reformation

 

1)Section 1: The Condition of the Church

a)Religious life of most people took place at the local/village level

b)Priests were poor peasants who identified religion with life

i)Clerical immorality

(1)Church law required celibacy, many had concubines

(2)Drunkneess, gambling, fancy dress were all immoral

ii)Clerical ignorance

(1)Bishops casually enforced regulations regarding education of priest, standards low, humanists upset by low education levels, many illiterate

iii)Clerical pluralism

(1)Many clerics held multiple benefices (offices) and seldom visited them

(2)Collected revenue from each only hired a poor priest at fraction of income

c)Royal consolidation in 15th and 16th centuries required civil servants

i)Many govt officials were clerics, were rewarded with higher offices such as royal councilors, diplomats, viceroys, judges- nothing to do with spiritualness

d)In most countries (except England) nobility held the highest church positions

e)Popes of 1450-1550 lived like secular Renaissance princes

i)Pius II- wrote love stores, Latin poetry

ii)Sixtus IV- beautified Rome, built Sistine Chapel, supported artists

iii)Innocent VIII, Spaniard Alexander VI (Borgia- synonymous with corruption) acknowledged mistress, Julius II led papal troops, Leo X

f)Late 15th and early 16th centuries, calls for reform

i)Spain- Cardinal Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros- enforced high standards of learning and ethics

ii)Holland- Brethren of the Common Life- Gospel teachings, taught local schools,

iii)The Imitation of Christ by Thomas a Kempis- use Christ as model, seek simple perfection- stressed Scriptures in life- spread to Germany, Netherlands

g)Loyalty to Roman Catholic church

i)Pilgrimages to Vatican, Rome, money left to church in wills by upper class

h)Papal Reform

i)Julius II summoned ecumenical council- 1512-1517- made recommendations for reform, increase clergy education, eliminate corruption

2)Section 2- Martin Luther and Birth of Protestantism

a)Born in Saxony, Germany the son of a miner and later mine owner

b)Intended to become lawyer, storm caused him to want to become friar

i)Entered mastery of the Augustinian friars at Erfurt in 1505

ii)Served as professor of Scriptures at the University of Wittenberg. Used professorship to justify his reforming work

c)Feared religious routine only gave temporary relief, was instructed by John Stapits to read Saint Paul’s letters, changed to believe salvation comes from a simple faith in Christ and not external observances

d)Archdiocese of Magdeburg- Albert

i)Help a plurality of posts, required papal permission

e)Borrowed money from Fuggers, wealthy banking family, to pay for papal dispensation (order) allowing him to hold positions. In order to pay back money, Pope Leo X authorized Albert to sell indulgences

i)In order for a sinner to be reconciled by God, they must confess and do penance assigned

ii)Indulgence (total remission of penalties for sin) rested on

(1)God is merciful but just

(2)Christ and the saints established “treasure of merits” which the church, which thru special relationship with Christ and saints, could dispense

(3)Church has authority to grant sinners spiritual benefits of those merits

iii)Albert hired Friar John Tetzel to sell indulgences- ad campaign

f)Luther troubled by people who believed no further repentance needed once they purchased an indulgence

i)Sent letter to Albert –“95 Theses on the Power of Indulgences”

(1)Undermined sacrament of penance, competed with Gospel, downplayed role of charity

(2)Reports of theses being placed on church of Wittenberg Castle on October 31, 1517- debated by scholars

(3)Translated into German and widely distributed

(4)Criticized notion that salvation could be achieved thru indulgences, also criticized pope’s wealth. No biblical basis

g)In 1519 debated John Eck at Leipzig

(1)Denied authority of pope and infallibility of a general council

(2)Council of Constanance had erred when it condemned Jan Hus

(3)January 1521 Luther excommunicated- “Germany open revolt”

h)Charles V first diet (assembly of States of the Empire)- Diet of Worms

i)Luther refused to recant, declared an outlaw- denied legal protection

ii)Duke Fredrick of Saxony protected him

i)Ulruch Zwingli

i)Introduced reformation in Switzerland

ii)Elected People’s Priest at New Minister in Zurich

iii)Believed Christian life rested on scriptures- pure words of God

iv)Attacked indulgences, Mass, monasticism, clerical celibacy

v)Disagreed on some issues with Luther, Colloquy of Marburg in 1529 failed to unite Protestant opinion

j)Protestant

i)Derives from group of reforming German princes in Diet of Speyer in 1529

ii)At first meant Lutheran, later applied to others and all non-Catholic Christians

iii)Lutheran Protestant though formulated in Confession of Augsburg in 1530

iv)Ernst Trooeltsch, student, “P. same Catholic question…different answer

k)Four basic theological questions + other differences

i)How is a person saved?

(1)Cath= faith and good work

(2)Luther= faith alone. God alone initiates salvation

ii)Where does religious authority reside?

(1)Cath= Bible and traditional teachings

(2)Luther=Word of God as revealed in Bible alone and interpreted by conscience

iii)What is the church?

(1)Luther said it was the entire community of Christian believers, not clergy

iv)What is the highest form of Christian life?

(1)Cath=monastic and religious over secular

(2)Luther= all vocations equal, serve god in individual calling

v)Church as a priesthood of all believers, not heirchal clergy

vi)Church 7 sacraments, Luther 3- Scripture supported baptism, penance, Eucharist (Lord’s Supper)

vii)Catholics dogma of transubstantiation-by words of priest, bread and wine become actual body and blood of Christ, who is then fully present

viii)Luther defined consubstantiation- bread and wine undergo a spiritual change whereby Christ is really present (the Real Presence) but bread and wine are not transformed

ix)Ulrich Zwingli affirmed Lord’s Supper is a memorial of the Last Supper

x)John Calvin believed body and blood of Christ are spiritually present, not physically

l)Spread of ideas to all social classes and all over Germany- printing press, pulpits

i)City governments resented clerical privileges and immunities

(1)Priests and nuns no taxes or civic responsibilities, yet held property

(2)City govt’s determined to reduce privileges, tax them, jurisdiction of civil court

ii)Condemned irregularity and poor quality of sermons

(1)Preacherships established by wealthy burghers- men of superior education required to deliver 100 sermons a year

(2)Many preachers became Protestant leaders

iii)On Christian Liberty (1520) attracted peasants b/c said no master but to God, ignored second clause saying most dutiful subject of all, subject to everyone

iv)Peasant revolts- crop failures in 1523 and 1524 and worsening peasant conditions

(1)Twelve Articles- expressed grievances, condemned lay and ecclesiastical lords, seized common land, imposed new rents, pay death duties. Said demands conformed to the Scriptures and cited Luther

(2)Initially sided with peasants (An Admonition to Peace 1525 blasted lords)

(3)Said nothing justified armed force, Scriptures nothing to do with earthly justice or material gains

(4)Massive revolts, Luther’s slogans used, expected Luther’s support

(5)Luther’s freedom meant independence from authority of Roman church, not opposition to legally established secular powers

(6)Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants- rebellion hastened end of civilized society

m)Lutheran theology eloped, exalted the state, subordinated church to the state

i)Revolt of 1525 strengthened lay rulers. Peasant economic condition improved

n)Luther’s fame and success attributed to printing press which spread his ideas widely and incredible skill with language- language as weapon to change the world

o)Peasants and educated ppl attracted by simpler, personal religion based on faith, return to sprit of early church, centrality of Scriptures, abolition of ceremonies

p)Translation of New Testament into German 1523 led to acceptance of his dialect

i)Doctrine of salvation by faith and priesthood of all believers raised religious status of commercial classes and protected their pocketbooks

ii)Hymns, Luther’s two catechisms (1529) expressed deep human feelings, imprinted on the mind central points of doctrine

q)Larger Catechism- sermons of faith, Shorter Catechism- explanation of doctrine

i)Stressed importance of 10 commandments

r)Appeal for Women

i)All vocations have equal merit gave dignity to ordinary domestic tasks

ii)End of monasticism led to exaltation of home, domain of the wife

iii)Schools were girls and boys became literate I n the catechism and Bible

iv)Stressed marriage, no longer concubines and mistresses, but honorable wives

v)Enlightened views on sexuality, matrimony but not promiscuity

vi)Marriage was a woman’s career, job to have children

s)Luther married ex-nun Katharina von Bora, household became large and happy

3)Germany and the Protestant Reformation

a)Germany lacked a strong, central power

i)Golden Bull of 1356- aristocratic federation- 7 electors

ii)Characterized by weak borders, localism, and chronic disorder

b)Rise of Habsburg Dynasty

i)14777- Maximilian I married Mary of Burgundy- made family an international power

ii)Relations among states affected by connections of royal families- marriages determined diplomatic status of states

(1)Marriage angered French= Louis XI attacked until Treaty of Arras, French Burgundy given to French

iii)Heir of Maimilian and Mary, Phillip of Burgundy, married Joanna of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain

iv)Their son, Charles V, inherited large amounts of land,

(1)Each land and people governed by a person of the emperor

(2)1519- received imperial title- Emperor of Germany

(3)Diet of Worms-1521- German revenues and German troops subordinated to the needs of other parts f the empire

(4)King, prince or civil authority determined the official form of religious practice within his jurisdiction

(5)Luther evoked national spirit, humanist support

(a)Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation

(i)Called upon princes to reform the church

(6)Some princes believed in Lutheranism, others swayed by materialism- secularized church property, accepted Lutheran doctrines, adopted simpler services

(7)Decision reached at Worms in 1521 to condemn Luther was not enforce because the German princes did not want to enforce it

(8)Charles V was a vigorous defender of Catholicism, 2 religions could not exist peacefully together in one territory

(a)Did not take interest in constitutional problems of Germany, lacked material resources to oppose Protestantism, preoccupied with other territories + Turkish threat

(9)Charles V waged war with Valois kings of France, therefore kings of France supported Lutheran princes who b/c they wanted to keep Germany divided, promoted fragmentation of German Empire

(10)1555- Peace of Augsburg- Charles V officially recognized Lutheranism, each prince could determine his territory’s religion

4)The Growth of the Protestant Reformation

a)By 1555 most of Northern Europe had broken with the Rom Cath Church

b)Calvinism

i)Believed God selects certain people to do certain work

ii)Beginning 1541 worked to reform Geneva- establish a Christian society ruled by God through civil magistrates and reformed ministers

iii)The Institution of the Christian Religion (1536)- absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity

(1)Predestination- men and women do not work for salvation, God decided at the beginning of time who would be saved

iv)Calvinists believed in the redemptive work of Christ and were confident that God had elected (saved) him or her

v)Geneva held to high standard of morality, religious education, God’s and man’s laws

vi)Powerful sermons by Calvin delivered Word of God, monopolized preaching

vii)Genevan Catechism (1541)- set of questions and answers summary of faith and guide for daily living

viii)Genevan Consistory- twelve laymen + Company of Pastors (of which Calvin was permanent moderator)- watch of man’s life, admonish disorderly living—governed severely under Calvin

(1)No distinction between crimes against society and Christian misconduct

(2)Serious crimes sent to civil authorities- sometimes used torture

(3)Harshest punishments were for religious dissenters

ix)Michael Servetus burned at the stake for belief in no Scriptural basis for Trinity, child baptism, and no mortal sins if under 20- would not recant

x)Women had congregational participation and vernacular liturgy

xi)Women- similar views as medieval times- exalted marriage, husband’s authority, did not distinguish between common and noble women

c)Anabaptists

i)Believed that only adults could make a free choice about religious faith, baptism, and entry into the Christian community- no child baptism

ii)Voluntary association of believers who experienced and inner light, not everyone would see the light- religious toleration

iii)Christian community + the Christian state were not identical, religious liberty

iv)Admitted women into ministry

v)To be a Christian meant to imitate meekness and mercy of Christ

vi)Ideas of pacifism and separation of church and state brought fanatical hatred and persecution

(1)Christian and Protestant leaders thought would lead to secularization

(2)Swiss and German rulers feared religious differences and economic grievances would lead to civil disturbances

d)English Reformation

i)14th century- Lollards stressed individual reading and interpretation of Bible, anticlerical, forced underground

(1)William Tyndale (1494-1536)- visited Luther, English translation of New Testament

ii)English church healthy in 16th century, clergy well educated, strong hold over the people, no gulf between clergy, educated and the masses, Reformation was an act initiated by the king’s emotional life

iii)1527 HenryVIII wanted marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled, in love with Anne Boleyn

(1)Petitioned Pope Clement VII for annulment feared daughter’s succession would lead to anarchy

(2)Pope preoccupied with Hapsburg-Valois War, Revolt in Germany, Sack of Rome by Charles V

(3)Could not grant annulment b/c would have helped Luther’s argument of papacy substituting own evil for word of God, admitting mistakes of Pope Julius II dispensation (allowed marriage of Henry to brother’s widow)

(4)Used parliament to legalize Reformation

(a)Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533)- declared king supreme sovereign forbade appeals to papacy (crown= highest legal authority)

(b)Act for the Submission of the Clergy (1534)- required churchmen to submit to king

(c)Supremacy Act (1534)- made king supreme head of Church of England

(d)John Fisher lashed clergy for cowardice in bending to king, Thomas More resigned chancellorship, many dissenters beheaded

(5)When Anne Boleyn failed to produce children, had her beheaded, could not produce a child with other wives, put Elizabeth back into succession

iv)Dissolved monasteries, sold them to upper and middle class to raise money

(1)Most people silently accepted changes, were afraid to jeopardize social status and family name,

(2)1536- Pilgrimage of Grace- largest, multiclass rebellion in northern England in response to state-ordered religious changes

v)Many catholic practices remind in place- (celibacy, confession, transubstantiation)

vi)Nationalization of church led to new beauracracies to handle new lands and wealth, Thomas Cromwell- chief minister- centralized household, the council, secretariats, and the Exchequer, balanced budgets

vii)Book of Common Prayer (1549)- order of services for Church of England, strong protestant ideas

viii)Under Mary Tudor, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, resorted England back to Catholicism

ix)Daughter, Elizabeth, faced trouble- Catholics wanted a Roman Catholics ruler, Protestants returning o England wanted all Catholic elements eliminated- purify church called “Puritans”

(1)Compromised, insisted on church services and order, did not care what people believed as long as they kept quiet about it

(2)Elizabethan Settlement- laws of early years- required outward conformity to C of E, Thirty Nine Articles- tenets of Anglican Church, moved in Protestant direction but remained traditional

e)Church of Scotland

i)King James V and daughter, Mary Queen of Scots, staunch Catholics

ii)Nobles, including John Knox, supported reform

iii)Studied with Calvin, wanted to reform like Geneva, Parliament ended papal authority

iv)Presbyterian Church of Scotland- presyters=ministers

v)Book on Common Order, Knox (1465)- liturgical directory for church, Calvinist doctrine

f)Protestantism in Ireland

i)English regarded Irish as barbarians

ii)1536, on orders from English Parliament, broke with Rome, founded Church of Ireland on English pattern

iii)Ruling class adopted new faith, most Irish for political reasons remained staunch Catholics, Catholic churchmen became nationalists+ religious leaders

g)Lutheranism in Sweden, Norway, Denmark

i)Monarchy initiated Reformation, Lutheran state churches founded

ii)Danish had ruled all, 1520 Swedish noblemen Gustavus Vasa revolt against Denmark, became independent, Olaus Petri translated New Test.

iii)Christian III of Denmark and Norway established Lutheranism as state religion, secularized church property

5)The Catholic Reformation and the Counter-Reformation

a)No new large areas of Europe, except Netherlands, accepted Protestant beliefs by 1540

b)Catholic Reformation- before 1517- sought to renew stimulation thru spiritualness

c)Counter-Reformation—1540s- convince dissidents or heretics to return to church

d)Institutional Reform

i)Pope Adrian VI tried to reform church and check spread of Protestantism

ii)Moved slowly because of popes preoccupation with politics in Italy, dealing with a very complicated bureaucracy

iii)Pope Clement VII- Medici, interested in art. Indecisive, worried about Papal States

(1)Battle of Pavia-1525- Pope switched sides, Charles V’s payback= sack Rome (1527), capture pope

iv)Papal bureaucrats warned popes against a council to reform by Spain, Germany, France- feared loss of power, revenue, prestige

e)Council of Trent

i)Pope Paul III

(1)Appointed reformers as cardinals, Inquisition in papal states, called council at Trent

(2)Met between 1545-1563, Lutherans and Calvinists invited to participate, reconciliation impossible

ii)International politics cast shadow over theological debates- Charles V didn’t want to upset Lutheran subjects, France wanted Germany weak

(1)All acts of council required papal authority, ppl wanted council to have power over papacy

iii)Accomplishments of Council

(1)Gave validity to Scriptures

(a)Reaffirmed 7 sacraments + transubstantiation rejected Lutheranism and Calvinism

(b)Tridentine decrees- required bishops to reside in their own dioceses, suppressed pluralism and simony, forbade indulgences

(c)No more concubines, bishops had to visit individual churches

(d)Seminary for clergy training, vocations- genuine callings as determined by purity of life, of secular

(2)Clandestine unions- marriage personal matter, private vows, led to disputes in ecclesiastical courts (marriage 1 of sacraments, church jurisdiction)

(a)Tridentine decree Tametsi (1563)- valid marriage had to have consent, witnesses, public vows

f)New Religious Orders

i)Developed out of a need to raise moral and intellectual level of the clergy and people

ii)Ursuline order of nuns, founded by Angela Merici, educated women, formed to combat heresy thru education

(1)Train future views and mothers

(2)Claustration- strict enclosure for women

iii)Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, converted Asians and Latin American Indians

(1)Spiritual Exercises (1548)- directed individual imagination and will to the reform of life and new spiritual piety

(2)Members called Jesuits, firstly from wealthy merchants + businessmen

(3)Goal was to help souls, better peoples spiritual condition

(4)Vows of poverty, chastity obedience, mobility- commitment to go anywhere for the help of souls

(5)School adopted modern humanist curricula, great influence on king

(6)Spread Christianity to India, Japan, North America, brought S. Germany and E. Europe back to Catholicism

iv)Congregation of the Holy

(1)1542- Pope Paul III- Holy Office- jurisdiction over Roman Inquisition

(a)Judicial authority over all Catholics w./ power to arrest, imprison, and execute, attack heresy

(b)Index of Prohibited Books- catalogue of forbidden readings

(c)Within Papal States destroyed heresy, but Venetians and Italians outside States were not cut off from main currents of European learning

v)Reformations- Revolution vs. Continuity

(1)Revolution- rejects status quo

(a)Protestantism rejected authority of Roman papacy

(i)New sects represent radical discontinuity, fragmentation

(ii)Modernity, rejection of Middle Ages

(b)Continuity

(i)Serious movements for reform

(ii)Brethren of Common Life in the Low Countries, Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros, Lateran Council of 1512= all before Luther, sought reform

(iii)Church became a pastoral and missionary church