1)The First World War

a)Involved all of Great Powers, long and destructive, senseless military stalemate

b)The Bismarck System of Alliances

i)Franco-Prussian War ended with harsh treaty, indemnity, Alsace-Lorraine ceded to Germany, Bismarck wanted to preserve peace

(1)Bismarck wanted to keep embittered France diplomatically isolated without military allies

(2)War btwn Austria-Hungary might drag Germany in to fight btwn rivals

ii)Bismarck’s solution system of alliances to restrain R and A-H, isolate France

(1)1873 Emperor’s League linked A-H, Russia, Germany against radicals

(a)Bismarck’s balancing efforts at Congress of Berlin infuriated Russian nationalists, B formed defensive alliance with Austria against Russia in 1879, Italy joined b/c of tension w/ France- Triple Alliance formed

(2)1881-1887 Alliance of the Three Emperors to work for peace in E. Eur btwn Austria-Hungary and Russia, Germany

(3)1887 Russia declined to renew Alliance, new substitute Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty pledged neutrality if other attacked

iii)Bismarck maintained German leadership in intl affairs, worked for peace by restraining A-H and Russia with defensive alliances

c)The Rival Blocs

i)1890 Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck b/c of friendly Russia policy, then refused to renew Reinsurance Treaty

ii)France courted Russia, prelim agreement 1891, military allies after 1894, would remain in effect as long as Triple Alliance (Austria, Germ, Italy) still existed

iii)GB foreign policy crucial- had long been content w/ “splendid isolation” and no perm allies, but growth of Anglo-German rivalry changed this

(1)Commercial rivalry, William II’s tactless public statements, Germany’s pursuit of world power and naval expansion challenged Britain’s naval supremacy (especially during Boer war when GB was overextended)

(2)Began to shore up position with alliances- improved US relations, 1902 alliance with Japan, 1904 Anglo-French Entente settled colonial disputes

(3)Germany frustrated by Britain’s turn toward France, wanted to test strength of entente, 1905 called Ageciras Conference to question French Morocco dealings, @ end in 1906 left empty-handed and isolated (except for A-H)

iv)Result of Morocco crisis and Algeciras Conf was that GB, France, Russia, US began to see Germany as potential threat seeking Eur domination

(1)Germany paranoid, made worse by 1907 Anglo-Russian Agreement that settled disputes btwn the two nations (following Russia’s war with Japan and revolution of 1905)

v)German navy expanded with battleships after 1907 w/ support of German nationalists led by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz

(1)British leaders such as David Lloyd George saw this as military challenge, spent “People’s Budget” on battleships rather than social welfare

(2)Economic rivalry contributed to distrust and hostility- economic warfare

(3)Leaders and ppl in Britain and Germany + proud nationalists admired and feared power and accomplishments of nearly equal rival

(4)Hysteria caused in 1909 by London Daily Mall put GB psychologically (although not officially yet) Franco-Russia camp

d)The Outbreak of War

i)War in Balkans inevitable due to nationalism destroying the Ottoman Empire and threatening Austro-Hungarian Empire

(1)1878 Congress of Berlin helped resolve crisis from uprising in 1875, but Ottoman Empire retained Balkans b/c A-H and Russia feared the other’s domination of totally independent states in the area

(2)Imperialism distracted Eur energies, but by 1903 Balkan nationalism on the rise led by Serbia who looked to Slavic Russia for support

(3)Austria 1908 capitalized on Russia’s weakness and annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1912 First Balkan War saw Serbia join Greece and Bulgaria to attack Ottoman Empire

(4)Dispute with Bulgaria after victory led to Second Balkan War in 1913, Austria intervened but leaders of multinational A-H feared Balkan nationalists would break up A-H as they had the Ottoman Empire

ii)Within this text context Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to A-H, assassinated by Serbian revolutionaries on June 28, 1914 in Bosnia

(1)Assassins connected to ultranationalist group the Black Hand which sought unification of Serbians supported by Serbian gov’t

(2)July 23 A-H presented Serbia unconditional ultimatum essentially giving Serbia to A-H, when Serbia replied evasively Austria mobilized

(3)Declared war on July 28, in a desperate, deliberate attempt to stem rising tide of hostile nationalism within A-H, “Third Balkan War” began

iii)Germany under William II and Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg gave Austria unconditional support even tho war btwn A-H and Russia likely

(1)Russian pan-Slavs saw themselves as protector of Slavs, Bethmann-Holleg hoped Russia (and therefore France) would not watch Serbs be crushed but GB would remain neutral, unwilling to fight for Russia in distant Balkans

iv)July 28 Tsar Nicholas II ordered partial mobilization, was impossible b/c plans had always called for war with both Austria and Germany, therefore on July 29 full mobilization ordered and in effect declared general war

v)German staff had also thought only for 2 front war, the Schlieffen plan (the work of Count Alfred von Schlieffen) called for knocking out France first with lightening attack thru Belgium

(1)August 2, 1914 General Helmuth von Moltke demanded Belgium permit German armies pass. Belgian neutrality had been guaranteed in 1839 by all the great states, refused German army, Germany attacked on August 3

vi)In face of this act of aggression GB joined France, declared war on Germany, beginning of World War I

e)Reflections on the Origin of the War

i)A-H deliberately started Third Balkan War for right to survive, Germany responsible for turning little war into Great War with attack on Belgium

ii) German leaders lost control of international system after Bismarck’s resignation in 1890, aggression response to declining world status + creation of Triple Entente in 1914 who wanted to strangle A-H, Germany’s only real ally

(1)Some hold that German aggression caused b/c German society not democratized, German ruling class wanted power but frightened by socialist movement and strikes in 1914, would take risks. Gambled diplomatic victory and war as means of rallying masses and preserving position

iii)Social tensions and domestic politics suggests nationalism underlying precondition of war- heart of Balkan Wars, arms race

iv)Majority of populations supported war in August 1914 b/c ppl believed their country had been wronged, wanted to rally to defend it

v)Wealthy governing classes had forgotten that great ward and great social revolutions often go hand in hand

f)The First Battle of the Marne

i)Belgians defended against invading Germans then fell back to join British army near Franco-Belgian border, complicated Schlieffen plan, German troops tired and advancing along enormous front

ii)French armies under General Joseph Joffre attacked a gap in the German line at the Battle of the Marne on Sept 6, French devoted all resources, finally Germans fell back and Paris and France miraculously saved

g)Stalemate and Slaughter

i)French and British attempts to turn German retreat into rout failed, By November 1914 both sides began to dig trenches to protect themselves from machine gun fire, stalemate in slaughter began in earnest

(1)Ceaseless shelling followed by frontal attack on enemy’s line

(2)Cost in lives of trench warfare staggering- 1915 barely any gains, 1916 Battle of the Somme B + F gained insignificant 125 sq miles, German campaign against Verdun also unsuccessful- all at the cost of many lives

(3)British poet Siegfried Sassoon wrote Somme offensive was “hell”

ii)1917 saw General Robert Nivelle’s French army almost destroyed in spring attack at Champagne, at Passchendaele British gained 50 sq miles

iii)Erich Remarque’s All Quiet on the Western Front (1929) describes war

iv)Millions killed during fighting and survivors disillusioned, opening chasm btwn veterans and civilians making postwar construction all the more difficult

h)The Widening War

i)On Eastern front no trench warfare, Russian “steamroller” had moved into Germany

(1)Damaged by Germans under Generals Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendroff at Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes in August and Sept 1914, Russia never threatened Germany again

(2)Austria front with help of German forces reversed Russian advances of 1914 and forced retreat deep into their own territory in 1915

ii)Changing tides of victory and defeat brought neutral countries into war

(1)Italy, member of Triple Alliance, in May 1915 joined Triple Entente (GB, France, Russia) in return for promises of Austrian territory

(2)Bulgaria aligned with Austria and Germany 1915 Central Powers

iii)Entry in 1915 marked widening of war, Central Powers occupied Balkans, entente successful in inciting Arab nationalists against Turkish overlord (German ally)

(1)Lawrence of Arabia, British colonel, aroused Arab prince revolt 1917

(2)1918 British army from Egypt smashed Ottoman Empire

(3)GB, France, Japan seized Germany’s colonies abroad, extending war

iv)April 1917 US declared war on Germany b/c of war at sea and sympathy for the Triple Entente who had naval blockaded Central Powers

(1)German counter blockade and use of submarine led to the sinking of the British passenger liner Lusitania in May 1915, President Wilson’s protest forced Germany to relax its submarine warfare

(2)1917 German military believed submarines could starve GB into submission before the US could rescue, resumed unrestricted sub warfare

(3)Reckless gamble, April 1917 US declared war, tip balance in favor of the Triple Entente and its allies

2)The Home Front

a)Mobilizing for Total War

i)In August 1914 most ppl greeted war enthusiastically b/c masses believed their nation was right, even socialists supported the war, national unity

ii)By mid-October generals realized more patriotism needed to win war b/c of desperate demand for men and weapons, prewar Eur had depended on foreign trade and international division of labor, needed economic organization change

(1)In each country govts began to plan and control economic and social life to wage total war, free-market capitalism abandoned

(2)Rationing, price and wage controls, restrictions for greatest military effort

(3)Blurred distinction btwn soldiers and civilians, ware of whole populations

iii)Ability of govt to manage and control complicated economics strengthened cause of socialism

(1)Walter Rathenau in Germany convinced govt to set up War Raw Materials Board to ration and distribute raw materials

(2)Successful attempts to produce substitutes such as synthetic rubber, food rationed in accordance with physical need

(3)Germany failed to tax the war profits of private firms heavily enough, led to deficit financing, inflation, black market, class conflict

(4)After Battles of Verdun and Somme in 1916 Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg was driven from office, 1917 Generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff ruled- decreed mobilization for total war

(a)December 1916 Auxiliary Service Law required all males btwn 17-60 to work only at jobs considered critical to the war effort

(b)Total war led to the establishment of history’s first “totalitarian” society, war production increased while some ppl starved to death

iv)GB mobilized less rapidly and differently- it could import materials from its empire and the US, but shortage of shells led to creation of the Ministry of Munitions under David Lloyd George

(1)Organized private industry, controlled profits, by 1916 when became PM economy largely planned and regulated, food rationed, govt bought and allocated 90% of imports

b)The Social Impact

i)Millions at front and insatiable military needs created tremendous demand for jobs

(1)Labor unions gained prestige, power, worked with govt on rules, wages, and received position on policy-making councils in exchange

(2)Large numbers of women left home to work in industry, transport, offices, following war gained right to vote in GB, Germany, Austria

ii)Greater social equity, class distinctions blurred

(1)In GB poor gained most from shortage of labor, lived better than ever b4

(2)Continent- equality reflected in employment, rationing according to physical needs, sharing of hardship

iii)Death killed aristocratic officers and soldier masses alike

c)Growing Political Tensions

i)During first two years of war most soldiers and civilians supported gov’t

(1)Belief in a just cause, patriotic nationalism, planned economy, united ppl

(2)Govt employed censorship and propaganda to control public opinion

ii)Spring 1916 people began to crack under strain of total war

(1)April 1916 Irish nationalists rose up in Easter Rebellion, crushed by GB

(2)May 1, 1916 socialist Karl Liebknecht in Berlin arrested for leading demonstrations, electrified Europe’s far left

iii)Soldiers’ morale declined- French units refused to fight after General Nivelle’s offensive 1917, only agreement by govt of no more grand offensives allowed new General Henri Philippe Petain maintain order

(1)Georges Clemenceau emerged as ruthless leader November 1917, virtual dictatorship, jailed journalists, politicians, strikers

iv)Central Powers- October 1916 Austrian minister assassinated, Joseph died

(1)A-H- Despite censorship political dissatisfaction and conflicts btwn nationalities grew, wanted autonomous democracies for their peoples

(2)Germany- Auxiliary Service Law total war put strain, desperate military condition + stalemates and losses led to gamble on all out sub warfare

(a)National political unity collapsing as social conflict of prewar Germany re-emerged- moderate socialists called for compromise, strikes n 1917 ended only under threat of prison + military discipline

3)The Russian Revolution

4)The Peace Settlement

a)The End of the War

i)Early 1917 strain of total war, revolution in Russia, moderation in Reichstag

(1)German military established virtual dictatorship, after fall of Russia General Ludendroff began spring offensive against France in 1918

(2)Second Battle of the Marne was a German failure, by September British French, and Americans were advancing on all fronts

ii)Emperor formed new liberal German gov’t to pursue peace, workers protested for peace, army discipline collapsed, emperor abdicated and fled to Holland

iii)Revolution broke out, socialist leaders declared German republic and agreed to allied terms of surrender, armistice went into effect on November 11, 1918

b)Revolution in Germany

i)Military defeat brought political revolution to Germany and A-H

ii)Austria-Hungary=nationalistic- Hapsburg empire fell, independent Austrian, Hungarian, Czechoslovakian republics proclaimed, Yugoslavia formed

iii)German Revolution of November 1918 like Russian Revolution of 1917- popular uprising from below toppled auth. monarchy, liberal republic followed

iv)Liberal and moderate socialists in govt, workers and soldiers councils were counter-government but failed—political revolution w/o communist after

(1)Marxian socialists leaders wanted real democracy and civil liberties, favored gradual elimination of capitalism, feared radical terror

(2)German Social Democrats accepted defeat and ended army’s morale decline, later when radicals led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg attempted coup army murdered them

c)The Treaty of Versailles

i)Not to repeat mistakes of Congress of Vienna of 1815, optimism and idealism

ii)President Wilson’s 14 Points stressed national self-determination and rights of small countries, cheered as spokesman for idealistic democratic international cooperation, League of Nations could protect members and prevent future war

iii)Lloyd George and Clemenceau wanted to punish Germany, LG elected on platform of making Germany pay for war, captive to demands for total victory worthy of sacrifice of total war

iv)Clemenceau wanted revenge and lasting security, wanted buffer state, demilitarization, reparations- seemed vindictive and against self-determination

(1)Agreed to compromise, gave up Rhineland buffer in return for a formal defensive alliance with US, GB who would aid against German attack

v)German territorial losses small, Alsace-Lorraine returned to France, German Poles created new Polish state, had to limit army to 100,000

(1)Allies declared Germany responsible for war, pay reparations equal to all civilian damages caused

vi)Germany unhappy but forced to sign treaty, treaties in Eastern Eur broke up Hungarian Empire, France got Lebanon and Syria, GB took Iraq and Palestine, Germany’s China holdings to Japan

d)American Rejection of the Versailles Treaty

i)Peace speedy b/c fear Bolshevik Revolution might spread, best solution peace and tranquility for war-wearied peoples

ii)German’s moderate socialists and liberal supports faced enormous challenge and instability, needed time to establish peaceful democratic republic

iii)US Senate and American ppl rejected Wilson’s handiwork, Republican senators led by Henry Cabot Lodge refused to ratify treaty

(1)Believed League of Nations mandate to take action against aggression gave away Congress’s constitutional right to declare war, Wilson rejected compromise, refused to ratify defensive alliance w/ France and GB

(2)Newfound isolationism, GB also refused defensive alliance, France alone

iv)Western alliance collapsed, plan for peace gave way to fragile truce