1)Industrialization and the World Economy

a)The Rise of Global Inequality

i)IR allowed industrialized regions in 19th century to increase their wealth and power enormously compared to nonindustrial ones- system institutionalized

(1)In 1750 average standard of living no higher in Eur than in the rest of the world, Eur still poor agricultural society

(2)Industrialization opened gaps in wealth btwn countries and regions

(3)Income per person in the Third World stagnated before 1913 in striking contrast to the industrializing regions

ii)Rise of enormous income disparities indicates equal disparities in food, clothing, health, education, life expectancy, + general material well-being

(1)Some say West used science, tech, capitalist organization to create wealth

(2)Some say west used political and economic power to seal its riches

iii)Wealth from colonialism flowed mainly to the West and its propertied classes

b)The World Market

i)Enormous growth of commerce between nations in 19th century sums up growth of interlocking world economy centered and directed by Europe

ii)GB used trade to tie world together economically by using tech from IR to produce cotton textiles, iron, and other goods cheaply. Manufacturers sought exports to markets in colonies such as India, Canada, Australia, others

(1)As Eur nationals and US erected protective tariff barriers, GB sought and found foreign markets in non-Western areas

(2)GB itself a good market after repeal of Corn Laws in 1846

iii)Growth of trade facilitated by conquest of distance

(1)Railroads reduced transportation costs, new economic opportunities

(2)Steam changed sea travel by sail, iron replaced wood—passenger and freight rates tumbled, intercontinental shipment of low priced raw materials became possible

(3) Revolution in land and sea transport helped Eur pioneers open up vast new territories and produce new agricultural products and raw materials for sale in Eur. Trop products and raw materials for industry flowed to Eur

(4)Suez and Panama canals, modern port facilities, transoceanic telegraph

iv)Growth of trade and transport encouraged Eur economy to make massive foreign investments beginning in 1840

(1)Most of capital exported did not go to Eur colonies or protectorates in Asia and Africa, but rather to other Eur nations, US, and Canada to build ports, railroads, utilities

c)Opening of China and Japan

i)Europe’s relatively peaceful offshoots in sparsely populated NA, Australia, and Latin America was most important part of global thrust

ii)Europe’s economic + cultural penetration of old, densely populated civilizations significant, especially for non-Europeans affected- use of force

iii)For centuries China had sent more goods and inventions to Eur than it had received, English had to pay for Chinese tea in silver because it had no interest in European wares

(1)Trade carefully regulated by Qing (Manchu) Dynasty, foreign merchants forced to live in southern city Canton

(2)In opium grown legally in British India English found product Chinese wanted, aggressively smuggled and sought eventual free trade and control

(3)Qing gov’t decided opium trade had to end, stripping Chinese of silver to British merchants to pay for opium- Special envoy Lin Tse-hsu ordered foreign merchants to obey Chinese laws, British refused and thrown out

(a)War broke out, using troops from India British occupied coastal cities and forced Chinese surrender

(b)Treaty of Nanking 1842 ceded Hong Kong, indemnity, opened up four cities to foreign trade with low tariffs

(4)Opium trade flourished, Second war btwn 1856-1860 resulted in harsh treaties that gave Eur merchants greater privileges + protection, forced Chinese to accept trade + investment on unfavorable terms- military aggression used to force china to open country to foreign trade and ideas

iv)Japan 1640 sealed off nation from all Eur influences in order to preserve traditional Japanese culture and society

(1)Isolation seemed hostile and barbaric to West, to US seemed duty to force Japanese to share their ports and behave “civilized”

(2)Commodore Matthew Perry sailed to Tokyo Bay 1853, demanded negotiations, Japanese reluctantly signed treaty opening up two ports

(3)Over next five years more treaties spelled out rights and privileges of Western nations and merchants in Japan, Japan “opened”

d)Western Penetration of Egypt

i)1798 Napoleon invaded Ottoman controlled Egypt, withdrew three years later and power vacuum filled by Turkish general Muhammad Ali

ii)Disposed of political rivals, set out to build own state with strong, European organized army

(1)Drafted illiterate peasant masses, hired French and Italian army officers to train them and Turkish officers

(2)Govt reforms, new lands cultivated- by death of Ali in 1849 Egypt strong, virtually independent state within Turkish empire

iii)Modernization attracted Europeans, to pay for ambitious plans encouraged development of agriculture

(1)Poor, self-sufficient peasants detested gov’t officials and Ali’s family members who carved private holdings out of state domain

(2)New landlords forced tenants to grow cash crops for Eur markets, Egyptian landowners modernized agriculture to the detriment of peasant well-being

iv)Grandson Ismail ruled as khedive (prince), Suez canal completed in 1869- massive debt owed to foreigners, GB and France forced Ismail to appt Eur commissioners in gov’t to protect bondholders

v)Eur now directly controlled Egyptian affairs, foreign financial control evoked violent nationalistic rxn, 1879 formed Egyptian Nationalist Party under Colonel Ahmed Arabi

vi)Ismail abdicated to weak son Tewfiq, riots ensued, Colonel Arabi put down by British troops, British army occupied Egypt until 1956

vii)New model for Eur expansion based on military force, political domination, self-justifying ideology of beneficial reform

2)The Great Migration

a)The Pressure of Population

i)Early 18th century growth of Eur population due to decreasing death rate (increased standard of living + medical revolution), population doubled

ii)Growing number of Europeans driving force behind Western expansion and emigration, pressure on land and overpopulation prompted new generation to see little available land and opportunity, and therefore migrated

iii)Number of ppl who left increased rapidly before WWI, different countries had different patterns of movement- migration patterns mirrored social and economic conditions in the various European countries and provinces

iv)US absorbed largest number of immigrants but less than half ended up there, Russia, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, also attracted large numbers

b)European Immigrants

i)Most migrants were peasant landowners or craftsmen whose way of life was threatened by too little land, estate agriculture, or factory-made goods

(1)Energetic farmer or skilled artisan trying to stay ahead of poverty, not impoverished or landless peasant or urban proletarian- bought cheap land

(2)Asset to nation, determined to maintain and improve status, were young and often unmarried, willing to work hard in new land

ii)Many migrants returned home, repatriation varied by nation, controlled by possibility of buying land

iii)In Italy influx of cheap North American wheat led to decrease in standard of living for small landowning peasants and began to leave, migration provided escape and possible income to buy more land- “swallows” traveled seasonally

iv)Many landless Europeans left b/c privileged classes resisted demands for change and greater opportunity, migration slowed down when ppl won basic political and social reforms such as right to vote and social security

c)Asian Migrants

i)Chinese, Japanese, Indians, Filipinos responded to rural hardship with temporary or permanent migration

ii)Most went as indentured laborers to plantations or mines, used to replace or supplement blacks after suppression of slave trade

iii)By the 1880s “great white wall”- discriminatory laws designed to keep Asians out, due to conflicts with Asians fleeing poor conditions

3)Western Imperialism

a)Apex of expansion btwn 1880 and 1914 during rush to enlarge political empires abroad as opposed to economic penetration btwn 1816 and 1880 where Europeans “opened” territories but left them politically independent—new imperialism

b)The Scramble for Africa

i)French began conquering Algeria in 1830, British took possession of Dutch settlements at Cape Town in south during wars with Napoleon I

(1)1835 Dutch settlers made Great Trek toward interior, after 1853 British colonies moving toward self-gov’t, Boers/Afrikaners proclaimed independence by 1880

ii)Btwn 1880 and 1900 scramble btwn Britain, France, Germany, Italy for possessions, by 1900 whole continent except for Ethiopia and Liberia had been conquered and colonial govts set up to rule

iii)During Boer Wars (1899-1902) British conquered Dutch rivals, 1910 united territories in new Union of South Africa, a largely self-governing colony

iv)British occupation of Egypt in 1882 established new model of formal political control

v)Leopold II of Belgium sent Henry M. Stanley to establish trading stations, French alarmed and sent out Pierre de Brazza to establish French protectorate

(1)Jules Ferry of France and Otto von Bismarck of Germany wanted to lay down rules for African rush, recognized Leopold’s personal rule over the Congo and agreed to stop slavery and African slave trade

(2)Berlin Conference coincided with rise of Germany as an imperial power from 1884-1885 when it began gaining colonies and expanding

(3)British began expanding African enclaves, blocked in Sudan by Muslims in 1885 at Khartoum

(4)Decade later British General Horatio H Kitchener moved up Nile River, used machine gun to kill Muslim tribesmen, eventually conquered the Sudan

vi)Native peoples blown away by superior military force, Europeans always stopped short of actually fighting each other, imperial ambitions were not worth a great European war

c)Imperialism in Asia

i)Dutch ruled Java and East Indies, Germany and Britain shared, Russia conquered Muslim areas and parts of Far East China, US conquered Philippines

d)Causes of the New Imperialism

i)Many factors contributed to the late 19th century rush for territory and empire

ii)Economic motives large, especially for GB who was facing increased competition from industrialized France, Germany, and US during 1870s. These nations had tariff barriers, GB faced needed new markets b/c of too much competition, feared France and Germany would seal off their empires

(1)In reality economic gains were small before 1914 b/c new colonies were poor and could not buy much

iii)Political and Diplomatic reasons- leading countries saw colonies as crucial to national security, military power, international prestige

(1)Safeguarding of the Suez Canal in Egypt, led to bloody Sudan conquest

iv)Many felt that colonies were essential to great nations, increasing aggressiveness of Eur nationalism after Bismarck’s wars of German unification and Social Darwinism of competition btwn races

(1)Eur nations had to seize colonies to show they were strong and virile

(2)Social Darwinism and harsh racial doctrines fostered imperialist expansion

v)Technological and military superiority

(1)Rapid firing machine gun ultimate weapon in battle, quinine controlled malaria attacks, steamship and international telegraph permitted Western powers to concentrate firepower when needed

vi)Social tensions and domestic political conflicts

(1)Conservatives charged with manipulating colonial issues in order to divert poplar attention from the class struggle at home + to create a false sense of national unity, defined imperialist expansion as a national necessity

vii)Special-interest groups were powerful agents of expansion

(1)Shipping companies wanted subsidies, white settlers wanted land, missionaries and humanitarians wanted to spread religion and stop slave trade, military men and colonial officials saw rapid advancement

viii)Idea that Eur could and should “civilize” more primitive, nonwhite peoples

(1)Eventually receive modern benefits and in time may be ready for self-government and western democracy

(2)Rudyard Kipling wrote of the white man’s burden- to rule rather than liberate, protect natives from tribal warfare and cruder forms of exploitation

(3)Peace and stability under Eur control facilitated spread of Christianity especially in Africa, less successful in India, China, Islamic world (ppl with ancient, complex religious beliefs)

e)Critics of Imperialism

i)English economist J.A. Hobson after Boer War in Imperialism- colonies not profitable for country as a whole only rich, only diverted attention from domestic reform

ii)Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad castigated selfishness of Europeans in “civilizing” Africa

iii)Europeans held double standard and did not live up to their own ideals- @ home winning representative govt and liberties, but in empires imposed military dictatorships and forced Natives to work

4)Responses to Western Imperialism

a)Western expansion threatened traditional ruling class, economics, way of life

i)Initial response of Asian and African rulers was to drive foreigners away but Superior tech of industrialized West often prevailed

b)Some concluded that was superior in some ways and societal reform needed, spectrum from “traditionalists” to “westernizes/modernizers”

c)After power of both traditionalists and modernizers shattered by superior force, most finally accepted imperial rule

i)Europeans governed smoothly and effectively, using support of traditionalists and modernizers

ii)Support for Eur rule among the people was shallow and weak, conforming classes followed with less enthusiasm and some developed opposition

d)Opposition developed because nonconformists (eventual anti-imperialist leaders) developed burning desire for human dignity, used Western ideologies to justify their protest- Western ideas, nationalism asserted that every ppl had the right to control its own destiny, after 1917 Marxian socialism used

e)Empire in India

i)Following Portuguese British East India Company conquered last independent native state by 1848, Great Rebellion- insurrection by Muslim and Hindu mercenaries in British arm- crushed by 1858

ii)After 1858 India ruled by British Parliament and administered by small, all-white civil service that practiced job discrimination and social segregation

iii)Strong feelings of cultural superiority aside, British established progressive secondary education to build future subordinates

iv)New Indian bureaucratic elite played crucial role in modern economic development- irrigation projects, railroads, large tea plantations

v)With well-educated English speaking bureaucracy and modern communications unified, powerful state created

vi)Rise of nationalism among Indian elite, discrimination and injured pride contradicted Western concepts of human rights and equality

(1)1885 Hindu Indian National Congress called for equality and self-gov’t like British had granted in Canada and Australia

(2)1907 Indian National Congress called for complete independence +home rule thru elected Parliament

f)The Example of Japan

i)Feudal society with emperor, hereditary military governor called shogun, warrior nobility called samurai who governed peasants and city dwellers

ii)After foreign diplomats and merchants began to settle, wave of terrorism and antigov’t assassinations btwn 1853-1863, foreign military response swift

iii)1867 Meiji Restoration restored emperor, new goal of govt was to meet foreign threat, dropped antiforeign attacks, initiated modern reform

(1)1871 feudal structure abolished, formed strong unified state

(2)Declared social equality, freedom of movement, free economy, built railroads and factories, principles of free liberal society

(3)Army and navy rebuilt, used to crush rebellion in 1877 by feudal elements

(4)Science and modern tech in industry, medicine, foreign experts brought in to train Japanese

iv)By 1890 more selective emphasis on things that kept in line with Japanese tradition, began to copy Western imperialism

(1)Competed with West for China, defeated Russia in 1904 competing for imperialist desires, annexed Korea 1910

v)Japan first non-Western country to use love of country to transform itself and meet challenges of Western expansion, provided patriots throughout Asia and Africa with an inspiring example of national recovery and liberation

g)Toward Revolution in China

i)1860 Qing Dynasty on verge of collapse, efforts to repel foreigners had failed, yet gov’t made comeback

(1)Traditional ruling groups produced new and effective leadership, quelled Tai Ping rebellion, Tzu His ruled

(2)Destructive foreign aggression lessened b/c West had achieved goal of commercial and diplomatic relations

ii)Domestic reform and cooperation with West collapsed during Sino-Japanese War btwn 1894-1895, harsh treaty revealed China’s helplessness

(1)US Open Door Policy opposed formal annexation, tempo of foreign encroachment accelerated after 1894

iii)1898 Hundred Days of Reform attempted radical reform, Sun Yat-sen sought to overthrow dynasty and establish republic

iv)Some traditionalists turned back toward ancient practices, conservative antiforeign patriots clashed with missionaries

(1)Boxer Rebellion (1900-1903) led to imperialist response, Peking occupied and plundered, anarchy and foreign influence spread

(2)1912 Rebellion toppled Qing dynasty, republic declared