1)The Modernization of Russia

a)The “Great Reforms”

i)1850s Russia was poor agrarian society with little industry, serfdom basic social institution with serfs sold, worked on lords terms, forced to serve army

ii)Crimean War (1832-1856) pitted Russia against France, GB, Ottomans over Christian shrines, Russian lost it fallen behind industrialized Western nations, military disaster forced Alexander II for social change and modernization

(1)Serfs freed in 1861, collective ownership of land by freed peasants made it hard for individuals to improve methods, thus effects of reform limited

(2)1864 zemstvo created- local govt institution elected by three-class system, was executive council that dealt with local problems

(3)Reforms to legal system- independent courts, censorship relaxed

b)The Industrialization of Russia

i)Until 20th century strides toward modernization had been economic rather than political, industry and transport were seen as vital to military

(1)Gov’t encouraged and subsidized private rail companies, enabled export of grain and earned money for industrialization

(2)Industrial growth led to territorial expansion in south and east

ii)1881 Alexander II assassinated and reform came to an end, new tsar Alexander III was a reactionary

iii)Political modernization froze but economic modernization increased b/c of nationalism after Crimean War, and under finance minister Sergei Witte

(1)Gov’t build state-owned railroads, Trans-Siberian line, protective tariffs to build industry, money “gold standard” to strengthen finances

(2)Witte encouraged foreigners to use capital and technology to build factories in Russia, modern steal and coal industry built, petroleum refining

c)The Revolution of 1905

i)Russia had began imperializing, Japan launched surprise attack and beat Russia in 1905, military disaster brought political upheaval at home

ii)Business + professional classes wanted to match economic reform w/ political modernization to change absolutist monarchy to liberal, representative regime

(1)Factory workers had work grievances, organized in illegal labor movement, peasants gained little from era of reform, national sentiment strong

iii)Revolution of 1905 began in January 1905 when protesters in St. Petersburg sent petition to tsar Nicholas II, troops opened fire on “Bloody Sunday”

(1)Outlawed parties came into open, strikes, peasant uprisings, minority revolts, troop mutinies- gov’t capitulated, in October Manifesto tsar promised full civil rights, popularly elected Duma

iv)On eve of first Duma 1906 govt issued new constitution, the Fundamental laws

(1)Tsar retained power, absolute veto over Duma, tsar appt all ministers

(2)Liberals saw Fundamental Laws as step backward, refused to cooperate with Tsar’s ministers, tsar dismissed Duma

(3)Second Duma elected was more radical, again dismissed by tsar

v)New electoral law gave propertied classes more power at expense of workers, peasants, minorities, led to majority in new Duma

vi)In 1914 Russia was partially modernized conservative constitutional monarchy with a peasant-based but industrializing economy

2)The Russian Revolution

a)The Fall of Imperial Russia

i)Patriotic enthusiasm when Russia entered World War I in 1914 under Nicholas II, 1915 Russian casualties high but peasant army did not collapse

ii)Duma and local govt took lead, set up committees to coordinate defense, industry, transport, agriculture to mobilize for total war

iii)Main problem was leadership, Nicholas II wished to maintain supreme royal power, failed to form partnership with his citizens to fight more effective war, came to rely on old bureaucratic apparatus, rejecting popular involvement and resisting calls to share power

iv)Duma, educated MC, masses became critical, demands for more democratic and responsive govt exploded in Duma 1915, Progressive bloc formed calling for new govt responsible to Duma instead of tsar, tsar took over army control

v)With star at front, govt taken over by Tsarina Alexandra who tried to rule absolutely with advisor Rasputin in 1916

(1)Rasputin murdered by members of aristocracy, food shortages worsened, morale declined, riots in Petrograd (St. Petersburg)

(2)Troop discipline broke down and joined revolution, Duma declared provision govt March 12, 1917, 3 days later Nicholas abdicated

b)The Provisional Government

i)March revolution joyfully accepted throughout country, provisional govt quickly established equality before the law, freedom of religion, speech, assembly, right of unions to organize and strike, and other liberal programs

ii)Leaders rejected social revolution, govt under Alexander Kereknsky refused to confiscate large landholdings to peasants, first priority was July war offensive

iii)From first day provisional govt had to share power with the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies, saw itself was grassroots revolutionary democracy, issued its own radical orders weakening provisional government

(1)Army Order No. 1 stripped officers of duty and placed power in hands of elected soldier committees, led to collapse of army discipline, soldiers returned home to steal land, anarchy during summer 1917

c)Lenin and the Bolshevik Revolution

i)Lenin studied Marxian doctrines intensely, developed own interpretations

(1)Stressed capitalism could be destroyed only by violent revolution, denounced all revisionist theories of peaceful evolution

(2)Under certain conditions socialist revolution possible even in backward country like Russia where industrial working class was small but poor peasants could be revolutionaries

(3)Necessity of a highly disciplined worker’s party under control of dedicated elite intellectuals and full-time revolutionaries

ii)At Russian Social Democratic Labor party meetings Russian Marxian socialists split into two factions- Lenin’s Bolsheviks with small, disciplined elite party, and Mensheviks who favored more democratic party with mass membership

iii)After returning from neutral Switzerland with German help in 1917, Lenin attacked at once against cooperation with “bourgeois” provisional govt of liberals and moderate socialists

iv)Lenin’s attempt to seize power in July failed, went into hiding, but dispute between Kerensky and General Lavr Kornilov lost Kerensky all respect with army, the only force that could have saved him and democratic Russia govt

d)Trotsky and the Seizure of Power

i)Thru summer Bolsheviks won support of workers and majority in Petrograd Soviet, Lenin supporter Leon Trotsky executed Bolshevik power seizure

(1)Trotsky convinced Petrograd Soviet to form special-military revolutionary committee with him as leader, military power passed to Bolshevik hands

(2)Bolsheviks reduced opposition to coup by taking power in name of more popular and democratic Soviets when provision govt seized

ii)Bolsheviks came to power b/c 1917 democracy had given way to anarchy and power vacuum, in Lenin and Trotsky Bolsheviks had determined and superior leadership that tsar and provisional govt lacked, Bolsheviks appealed to soldiers and urban workers exhausted by war and eager for socialism

e)Dictatorship and Civil War

i)Lenin kept power by profiting from developments over which he and the Bolsheviks had no control

(1)Law giving land to peasants merely approved what the peasants were already doing, mainly seizing land in 1917

(2)Urban workers wanted direct control of factories, Lenin ratified this

ii)Lenin acknowledged defeat by Germany, only realistic goal peace at any price

(1)Germany demanded Soviet gov’t give up all western territories, areas inhabited by non-Russians who had been conquered by tsarist expansion

(2)At first would not accept such great territorial losses, after German continued march into Russia in 1918 Central Committee of the party voted to approve Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1/3 of Russia’s population axed

(3)With peace Lenin could pursue goal of absolute Bolshevik (now called Communalists) political power

iii)Constituent Assembly tasked with drawing new constitution, led to Bolshevik loss in free elections, met for one day in January 1918 before Lenin ordered it permanently disbanded by Bolshevik troops

iv)Destruction of democratically elected Constituent Assembly fed civil war flames, ppl saw getting dictatorship again, officers of old army formed “White” opposition to Bolshevik “Reds”

v)By 1918 18 self-proclaimed regional govts formed, competed with Lenin’s Bolsheviks in Moscow, by 1920 Whites almost completely defeated because:

(1)Bolsheviks controlled Center while Whites were disunited at fringes

(2)Communists developed better army, Whites no match

(3)Trotsky as war commissar re-established draft and tough discipline, formed effective fighting force

(4)War communism was application of total war to a civil conflict- nationalized banks, rationed, required work to keep Red Army supplied

(5)Revolutionary terror- Tsarist secret police re-established as Cheka, fear used as tool to silence opposition

(6)Foreign military intervention helped Communists b/c it was half-hearted-ppl in 1919 were war weary and politicians did not want to fully commit- and allowed Communists to appeal to patriotic nationalism

vi)Radically new govt based on socialism and one-party dictatorship came to maintain power, encouraged worldwide revolution, radicals had won

3)Stalin’s Soviet Union

a)Stalin instituted five-year plans which oare often incorrectly considered economic measures meant to speed up industrial development, but were actually attempt to mobilize and transform Soviet society and generate new loyalties and attitudes

b)From Lenin to Stalin

i)By spring 1921 Lenin and Bolsheviks had won civil war, economy destroyed

ii)In face of riots, March 1921 introduced New Economic Policy (NEP)- established limited economic freedom to rebuild agriculture and industry

(1)Heavy industry, railroads, banks all remained nationalized

(2)NEP compromise wit peasant majority, private not state workers

(3)NEP brought rapid recovery, shorter hours and increased social benefits

iii)Lenin had not left successor after death in 1924, power struggle in Communist Party between Joseph Dzhugashvili (Stalin) and Leon Trotsky

iv)Stalin good organizer but poor speaker, Trotsky was a great leader who had planned the 1917 takeover and created Red Army, yet Stalin succeeded Lenin

(1)Stalin more effective at gaining support of party, the only source of genuine power in a one-party state. Stalin suspended NEP

(2)Stalin better able to relate Marxian teaching to Soviet realities, theory of “socialism in one country” appealed more than Trotsky’s “permanent revolution” and socialist revolutions throughout Europe

v)Stalin achieved supreme power between 1922 and 1927 by allying with Trotsky’s enemies to crush and exile him, aligning with moderates to defeat Trotsky’s radical followers, then turned against these moderates and his allies

c)The Five-Year Plans

i)At party congress of 1927 five-year adopted, plan sought to increase industrial output, heavy industry, peasants give up private land and join collectives, economic and social change sweeping country

(1)Committed to socialism, wanted to stamp out NEPs private traders, landowners

(2)Economy had recovered but stalled in 1927-1928, way to grow rapidly

(3)Way to catch up with advanced West in short amount of time

ii)Stalin feared peasants wanted capitalism and landed, decided on a war against them to bring them under state control and make them pay for social offensive

(1)Collectivization-forcible consolidation of individual farms into large, state-controlled enterprises

(2)kulaks- better-off peasants, Stallin ordered to “liqduidate them”

iii)Forced collectivization led to economic and human disaster, in protest peasants slaughtered animals and burned crops

(1)Forced collectivization unproductive, unable to make any substantial financial contribution, output barely increased

(2)Millions of peasants died, famine in Ukraine led to starvation

(3)“Second serfdom”, peasants no longer political threat to Stalin and Communists, paid low prices  to keep bread cheap for urban workers

iv)Industrial side of five year plans extremely successful, industrial growth went hand in hand with urban development and urban migration

(1)One third of income went to investment in form of heaven, hidden sales taxes

(2)Firm labor discipline and foreign engineers used to grow industry

d)Life and Culture in Soviet Society

i)Aim of five-year plans was to create a new kind of society and human personality as well as strong industrial economy and powerful army

ii)Reduced consumption for investment no improvement in standard of living, masses lived on black bread, constant shore shortages, housing shortages

iii)Idealism and ideology had appeal for many communists, Soviet workers received some important social benefits- pension, free medical services, free education, day-care centers, little unemployment, personal advancement

(1)Improved position thru specialized skills and technical education b/c rapid industrialization called for trained experts and skilled workers

(2)Unskilled paid very little, but high salaries and special privileges for technical and managerial elites—ppl strove for education

iv)Russian Revolution of 1917 proclaimed complete equality for women, worked along side men on farm and in factories, education opportunities same as men

(1)Soviet society demand women work outside home, but men still dominated the best jobs

v)Culture lost autonomy, became politicized thru propaganda and indoctrination, artists forced to glorify Russian nationalism, history re-written

e)Stalinist Terror and the Great Purges

i)Offensive to build socialism and personality culminated in ruthless police terror and massive purging of the Communist party- some 8 million taken

ii)Party faithful, union officials, managers, intellectuals, arm officers, ordinary citizens all struck by Stalin’s reign of terror- arrested, executed, labor camps

iii)Stalin and party recruited 1.5 million new members to take place of those purged, new men products of “Second Revolution”, served party loyally

iv)Purges sent warning that nobody was secure and everybody had to serve party and its leader, reflect ideology of totalitarian state