1)The Scientific Revolution

a)Modern science- precise knowledge of the physical world based on the union of experimental observations with sophisticated mathematics

b)Whereas science had been secondary and subordinate in medieval intellectual life, it became independent and even primary for many educated ppl in 18th century

c)“Real origin both of the modern world and mentality”- distinctive traits of Western society

d)Scientific Thought in 1500

i)In the early 1500s Eur. ideas about the universe were based primarily of the ideas of Aristotle, Greek philosopher of the 4th century BC

ii)Recovered thru Middle Ages and brought into harmony with Christian doctrines

(1)Motionless earth was fixed at center of universe, around it moved 10 separate transparent crystal spheres, beyond 10th sphere was heaven and God, angels kept the spheres moving in perfect circles, consisted of 5th “essence”, distinction between he world of celestial spheres and that of Ear.

(2)Sublunar world made up of 4 imperfect elements- light-fire and light, heavy- earth and water. Objects moved at constant speed, would stop when force removed

(3)Lasted for 2,000 years b/c understandable and commonsense for what they saw, Aristotle’s science fit neatly with Christian doctrines- established humans at center of universe, home for God and souls

iii)Science was primarily a branch of theology, and it reinforced religious thought

e)The Copernican Hypothesis

i)Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1542)- as young man studied church law and astronomy, saw how astronomers depended on the work of Ptolemy, the last great ancient astronomer, from the 2nd century AD- allowed astrologers to track planets with greater precision

(1)Felt Ptolemy’s rules were cumbersome, inaccurate, detracted from the majesty of a perfect creator

(2)Preferred old Greek idea discussed in Renaissance Italy- the sun, rather than earth, was the center of the universe

(3)Worked from 1506-1530 on theory in church position, theorized stars and planets, including earth, revolved around a fixed sun

(4)Did not publish on the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres until 1453, the year of his death for fear of ridicule by other astronomers

ii)Copernican hypothesis put the stars at rest, apparent movement a result of earth’s rotation- destroyed main reason for spheres capable of moving stars

iii)Suggested universe of staggering size, and by characterizing the earth as just another planet destroyed Aristotelian idea that the earthly world was quite different from the heavenly one

iv)Drew sharp attacks from religious leaders, especially Protestants. Martin Luther said “Holy Scripture tells Joshua bid the sun stand still and not the earth”, Calvin opposed, not until 1616 did Catholic church declare theory false

(1)Slow reaction reflected slow progress of theory for many years, new star in 1572 and comet in 1577 contradicted crystal spheres

v)Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)- born into Danish noble family, impressed by eclipse at young age, established himself as Europe’s leading astronomer

(1)Aided by Danish king, built most sophisticated observatory, for twenty years meticulously observed the stars and planets

(2)Greatest contribution was his mass of data, didn’t have skills to interpret

vi)Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)- Brahe’s assistant, believed universe built on mystical mathematical relationships, worked after Brahe’s death to rework mountain of observations with brilliant mathematical skills

(1)Formulated three laws of planetary motions

(a)1609- demonstrated orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular

(b)Demonstrated that the planets o not move at a uniform speed in their orbits

(c)1619- showed that the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun

(2)Whereas Copernicus speculated, Kepler proved mathematically the precise relations of a sun-centered (solar) system, demolished old systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy

vii)Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)- Florentine, became professor of mathematics at 25, examined mechanics in a new way

(1)Experimental method- rather than speculate about what might or should happen, Galileo conducted controlled experiments to find out what actually did happen

(2)In famous acceleration experiment showed that a uniform force produced a uniform acceleration—from his Two New Sciences

(3)Law of inertia- rest was not natural state of objects, rather an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force- Aristotle’s theory in shambles

(4)Built telescope, discovered the first four moons of Jupiter- strengthen Copernicus’s theory

(a)In Siderus Nuncius wrote “moon is not perfectly smooth, as a large school of philosophers considers. Observed Milky Way. For the galaxy is nothing else but a mass of innumerable starts planted together in clusters”

(b)Traditional religious and theological world-view which rested on determining and accepting proper established authority began to gave way to a critical, modern scientific method

(5)Work aroused ire of some theologians- 1624 Pope Urban VIII permitted Galileo write about different possible systems so long as did not judge which one actually existed

(a)After Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World 1632- lampooned Aristotle and Ptolemy, defended Copernicus- tried for heresy by papal Inquisition- threatened with torture, recanted “errors”

f)Newton’s Synthesis

i)By 1640 accomplishments of Kepler, Galileo, others had taken effect

ii)New findings had not been fused together into a single system that would explain motion both on earth and in the skies

iii)Isaac Newton (1642-1727)- lower English gentry, arrived at major ideas about physics in 1666 at 24, unable to prove them mathematically, 1684 returned to physics for 18 intensive months

iv)1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia)- integrated astronomy of Copernicus as corrected by Kepler’s laws, with the physics of Galileo thru a set of mathematical laws that explain motion and mechanics

(1)Law of universal gravitation- every body in the universe attracts every other body in a precise mathematical relationship whereby the force of attraction is proportional to the quantity of matter of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

g)Causes of the Scientific Revolution

i)“Internal” view of scientific revolution as a product of towering individual genius

ii)Long-term contribution of medieval intellectual life and universities was considerable- by 13th century permanent universities with professors and large student bodies had been established in W. Europe to train lawyers, doctors, church leaders. Philosophers developed a limited impendence from theologians

(1)Science able to emerge as minor but distinct branch of philosophy, by 14th and 15th centuries universities had new professorships of math, astronomy, physics

iii)Renaissance stimulated scientific progress- recovery of finest works of Greek mathematics (byproduct of humanism), improved European mathematics. Patronage supported various scientific investigations

iv)Navigational problems of long sea voyages in age of overseas expansion- captains needed to chart their positions as accurately as possible  +reliable maps had to be drawn. As early as 1484 king of Port. Appointed mathematicians to help seamen find their latitude

(1)In England govt + trading companies sought science in attempt to solve problem of longitude

(2)Elizabethan financier Sir Thomas Gresham left large amt of money to found Gresham College in London, became center of scientific activity I England in first half of 17th century, led to establishment of Royal Society of London which published papers and sponsored scientific meetings

(3)Navigation problems led to new scientific instruments such as the clock, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope- allowed for more accurate observations

v)Better instruments- better ways of obtaining knowledge about the world

(1)Francis Bacon (1561-1626)- propagandist for new experimental method, rejected medieval method of using speculative reasoning to build general theories. Empiricism- collection, observation, analyzation of specimen will reveal general principles. Greater control over the physical envt would make people rich and nations powerful

(2), Rene Descartes (1596-1650)- saw there was a perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra and that geometrical, spatial figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa. Decided it was necessary to doubt everything that could be reasonably doubted and then use deductive reasoning from self-evident principles to ascertain scientific laws. Cartesian dualism- world reduced to matter and mind

(3)Modern scientific method has joined precise observations and experimentalism with the search for general laws that may be expressed in rigorously logical, mathematical language

vi)Religion

(1)Some claim Protestantism, particularly Calvinists, made scientific inquiry a question of individual conscience, Catholics suppressed theories

(2)Truth is that all religious authorities opposed Copernican system until about 1630, by which time the scientific revolution was definitely in progress

(a)After trial of Galileo in 1633, Counter-Reformation church became hostile to Science, accounted for decline of science in Italy after 1640

(b)Protestant countries such as Netherlands and Denmark became “prescience”- no strong religious authority to impose orthodoxy

(c)Protestant England after 1630- religious conflicts so intense that authorities could not impose religious unity on anything including science. Royal Society agreed only to discuss “neutral” scientific questions so as not to come to blows over closely related religious and political disputes

h)Some Consequences of the Scientific Revolution

i)Creation of the international scientific community linked together by common interests, shared values thru journals and learned societies. Sought expansion of knowledge

ii)Not only new knowledge of nature but a new way of obtaining such knowledge the modern scientific method. Both theoretical and experimental, method was highly critical and refused to base conclusions on traditions and established sources

iii)Had little effect on economic life and living standards of masses until late 18th century- improvements in navigation facilitated overseas trade and enriched merchants. But relatively had few practical economic applications

iv)First and foremost n intellectual revolution

2)Enlightenment

a)Most important original idea was that the methods of natural science could and should be used to examine and understand all aspects of life- reason

b)Rationalism- nothing to be accepted on faith, everything was to be submitted to the rational, critical, scientific way of thinking

c)The scientific method was capable of discovering the laws of human society as well as those of nature

d)Progress- using proper method of discovering laws of human existence it was possible for human beings to create better societies and better people

e)The Emergence of Enlightenment

i)Reached maturity around 1750, btwn publication of Principia in 1687 + death of Louis XI in 1715= some of most impt work

ii)Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-11757)- famous and influential populizer

(1)Sought to make science entertaining for a broad nonscientific audience

(2)Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds (1686)

(3)Medieval and Reformation thinkers concerned with sin, salvation, sought to equal accomplishments of the ancients

(4)Fontenelle and others believed their era had gone beyond antiquity, progress was possible

(5)Brought science into conflict with religion, skeptical about absolute truth and claims of organized religion

(6)Eulogies of Scientists- theme of rational, progressive scientists versus prejudiced, reactionary priests-

iii)Crisis in Eur. thought at end of 17th century btwn religion and science

(a)Intellectual uncertainties and dissatisfactions, demolition of Aristotle

(b)Religious truth + religious wars—ask if ideological conformity in religious matters was really necessary

iv)Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)- French Huguenot, despised Louis XIV

(1)Took advantage of toleration and intellectual freedom in Netherlands

(2)Historical and Critical Dictionary 1697- examined religion and persecution, concluded that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt

(3)Humanity’s best hope was open-minded toleration         skepticism

(4)Literature on peoples of China, India, Africa, Americas taught that each had its own different beliefs in customs, helped change perspective of educated Europeans. Began to look at truth and morality in relative rather than absolute terms

v)John Locke

(1)Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1690 (same year as Second Treatise)- rejected Descartes view that all ppl are born with certain ideas and ways of thinking, instead humans born with a tabula rasa on which envt writes individual’s understanding and beliefs. Development by education and social institutions

f)The Philosophes and the Public

i)Christian Europe still strongly attached to traditional beliefs early 18th century

ii)Philosophes- proclaimed they were bringing light of knowledge to ignorant

iii)France saw height on Enlightenment

(1)French was international language of educated class in 18th century

(2)Following death of Louis XIV French absolutism and religious orthodoxy was weakened, no overwhelming restraints

(3)Were philosophers questioning God, human nature, meaning of life, determined to reach and influence all French and Eur. economic and social elites- the enlightened public

iv)Public different from “the people”- believed majority of common ppl doomed to superstition and confused b/c lacked money and leisure to look beyond bitter struggle and grind with poverty      Jean le Rond d’Alembet

v)de Montesquieu (1698-1755)

(1)The Persian Letters 1721- imitation letters by foreigners criticizing existing practices and beliefs

(2)The Spirit of Laws 1748- study of republics, monarchies, despotism

(a)Forms of govt shaped by history, geography, customs, despotism avoided thru separation of powers- political power divided and shared by diff classes and legal estates- power checks power

vi)Voltaire (1694-1778)

(1)All his life struggled against legal injustice and unequal treatment by law

(2)Released from prison for promise to leave country, lived 3 years in England

(3)Gabrielle-Emelie Le Tonnel de du Chatlet- gifted woman, invited Voltaire to live in her country house and became companion

(a)Excluded from Royal Academy of Sciences because woman

(b)Spread ideas of others, translated w/ commentary Principia

(4)Praised England + English scientific progress, praised Newton for using genius for benefit of humanity

(5)Apptd royal historian 1742, Age of Louis XIV portrayed Louis as dignified

(6)Best form of govt was good monarch, didn’t believe in social and economic equality

(7)Challenged Catholic church and theology, “Great Clockmaster”, hated all forms of religious intolerance, piety and human kindness were needed

vii)Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the arts, and the Crafts edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert- greatest and most representative intellectual achievement

(1)Sought to examine the rapidly expanding whole of human knowledge, think critically and objectively on all matters

(2)Hundreds of thousands of articles by scientists, writers, skilled workers, progressive priests treated every aspect of life and knowledge

(3)Revolutionary effect, science exalted, religion questioned, legal injustice criticized—showed that human beings could use process of reasoning to expand human knowledge

(4)Summed up world view of enlightenment

g)Later Enlightenment

i)After 1770 unity of philosophes and their thought began to break down

ii)Baron Paul d’Holback- System of Nature 1770- argued humans were machines, free will and God were myths, aggressive atheism, hurt unity of Enlightenment

iii)David Hume- power of skepticism, human mind made up of impressions

iv)Marie Jean Caritat marquis de Condorcet- Progress of the Human Mind- utopianism

v)Jean Jacques Rousseau- Swiss, began to attack Enlightenment’s faith in reason, progress, and moderation

(1)Committed to individual freedom, but attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying, rather than liberating, the individual

(2)The Social Contract 1762- general will and popular sovereignty

(a)The general will is sacred and absolute, reflect interests of all people, people displaced the monarch as the older of sovereign power--- not always majority, sometimes a long-term farseeing minority

h)Urban Culture and Public Opinion

i)Eur. market for books grew dramatically in the 18th century

(1)Modest increase in liter was partly responsible, but the middle class and aristocracy accounted for most of the change- religious books fell from popularity, books on arts and sciences surged

(2)France’s censorship caused many books to be printed abroad and then smuggled into the country, as well as to central, southern, eastern Europe

(3)Growth of scandal mongering denunciations of high political figures and pornographic works—women used sexual charms to gain power over rulers

ii)“Reading revolution”- from center on sacred texts read communally by the father reading aloud to an audience many texts, constantly changing w/ no special respect, individual, rapid, silent.

iii)Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)- German philosopher argued that if serious thinkers were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, enlightenment would surely follow, Frederick Great permitted free of press

iv)Outside of Prussia, Netherlands, GB, phosophes and public resorted to discussion and social interchange to circumvent censorship and create autonomous cultural sphere- conversation in private homes + salons

v)Elite women exercised unprecedented feminine influence on artistic taste, some wanted greater but not equal rights + treatment for women

(1)Salons served as informal schools where hostesses passed skills to younger women, salons were independent realm free from religious dogma and political censorship, debate over public opinion

(2)United intellectual, social, economic elites

3)The Enlightenment and Absolutism

a)Frederick the Great of Prussia

i)Frederick II (1740-1786)- Frederick the Great

(1)When Charles VI of Austria died in 1740 and daughter Maria Theresa inherited, Frederick invaded her German province of Silesia

(2)War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)- gained all of Sylesia, pop doubled

(3)Seven Years War (1756-1763)- alliance btwn Austria, France, Russia, wanted to conquer Prussia, Peter III of Russia called off attack

(4)Considered how humane policies for subjects might also strengthen state

(a)Religious and philosophical tolerance

(b)Improved schools, simplified laws, torture abolished, reconstruction

(c)“Only the first servant of the state”- monarchy in terms of results

(5)Tried to change social structure, rejected serfdom in the abstract, but accepted it in practice, extended privileges of nobility

(6)Moses Mendelssohn- German philosophe who argued for religious toleration, Jewish freedom + civil rights, Frederick did not listen

b)Catherine the Great

i)Catherine the Great of Russia (1762-1796)

(1)From Anhalf-Zerbst, father Prussian army, mother related to Romanovs

(2)Peter the Great abolished hereditary succession of tsars to maintain policies

(3)Elizabeth heir to Peter, named her heir to be Peter and his wife to be Catherine

(4)After Peter withdrew Russian troops from alliance against Prussia and alienated army, Catherine and her military conspirators deposed of Peter II in a revolution

(5)Had read much about Enlightenment, had 3 goals:

(a)Worked to bring sophisticated culture of W. Eur to backward Russia

(i)Western architects, artists, intellectuals brought in, corresponded with Voltaire, gave Did rot money for Encyclopedia

(b)Domestic Reform

(i)Wanted unified laws, improve education, strengthen local govt

(ii)Emelian Pugachev- 1773 sparked uprising of serfs like Stenka Razin had done a century earlier

1.Proclaimed himself tsar, abolished serfdom, uprising squashed by well trained army of Catherine

(iii)Before rebellion condemned serfdom in theory, but afterward thought peasants dangerous and gave nobles absolute control over their serfs—nobility became most exalted position, serfs lowest

(c)Territorial Expansion

(i)Poland had not built strong absolutist state, Poland partitioned in 1772, 1793, 1795, rewarded nobles with land grants

c)Austrian Habsburgs

i)Maria Theresa (1740-1780)- after War of Austrian Succession, wanted reforms to make state stronger and more efficient

(1)Limited papacy’s influence,

(2)Administrative reforms- strengthened bureaucracy, new tax system,

(3)Improve agricultural population + reduce power of nobles over serfs

ii)Joseph II (1780-1790)- continued in mother’s footsteps

(1)Controlled Catholic church to produce better citizens, granted religious toleration

(2)1781 abolished serfdom, 1789 peasant labor be converted to cash payments

(3)Successor Leopold II forced to cancel Joseph’s edicts to re-establish order

d)Absolutism in France

i)Louis XV (1715-1774), regent was duke of Orleans until 1723, nobility made a strong comeback

(1)Restored parlements- high court of France- the right to review royal edicts, counterweight to absolute power

(2)Financial crisis after War of Austrian Succession, 5% income tax on every person no exemptions—protest, monarchy retreated

(3)Taxes again after Seven Years’ War, decided king could not levy taxes w/o consent of Parlement of Paris- acted as representative for the entire nation

(4)1768 apptd Rene de Maupeou to crush judicial opposition

(a)Abolished parlements, established new ones with royal officials, most philosophes against this “royal despotism”

(5)Luis XVI (1774-1792)

(a)Dismissed Maupeou, old parlements reinstated, unreformed monarchy faced judicial opposition

e)Overall Influence of the Enlightenment

i)French absolutism weakened, resurgence of nobility and opposition from judicial system

ii)In Eastern Europe reformers believed in change form above in form of powerful monarch

(1)Tried to enact needed reforms, modest improvements and life of peasants remained hard

(2)Committed to humanitarian objectives, but secondary to strengthening the state that would allow them to compete militarily with their neighbors

(3)Considered how more humane laws and practices could help their populations become more productive and satisfied and thus ale to contribute more substantially to the welfare of the state- religious toleration, simply legal code, promote education

iii)Eastern absolutists combined state building with culture and critical thinking of Enlightenment, succeeded in expanding the role of the state in the life of society